The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
201
13
The Final Neolithic (Late Chalcolithic) to
Early Bronze Age Transition in Crete and
the Southeast Aegean Islands: Changes in
Settlement Patterns and Pottery
Krzysztof Nowicki
Knossos and Phaistos have long been regarded as the most important sites for
the reconstruction of Neolithic settlement patterns in Crete (Tomkins 2000: 76).
Knossos has yielded a long continuous sequence from the first Neolithic settlers
to the beginning of the fourth millennium BC (Evans 1964), but the crucial
transition between the Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age (i.e., the
second half of the fourth millennium BC) is unfortunately poorly recorded at
this site (Evans 1994: 19). Phaistos represents a different part of the story. The
settlement on the later palatial hill seems to have been abruptly founded in the
latter part of the FN (Vagnetti 1972–3), as was a similar site on the summit of the
Gortyn acropolis (Vagnetti 1973). The defensible location and scale of Phaistos
indicate that its inhabitants either moved from a low lying large settlement (still
unknown) with a history similar to Knossos, or that it was settled by a number of
families coming from hamlets and individual farms scattered over this part of
the Mesara. But what was the reason for such a change in the local settlement
pattern, and was it really a local change?
The phenomenon of moving settlements to high hills, during roughly the
same period, has been observed elsewhere by Sinclair Hood who explained it
with reference to possible security problems (Hood et al. 1964: 51; Hood and
Warren 1966: 185). Lucia Vagnetti, however, wanted to see the process as connected
with climatic changes (Vagnetti 1972–3: 132), but such a hypothesis does not
explain the general changes in settlement pattern seen throughout the entire island.
In this paper I will show that the transition between the Neolithic and Early
Bronze Age in Crete was not smooth and gradual (Vagnetti 1996: 40) and was not
restricted to changes in pottery manufacturing and metalworking as has been
often argued. Changes in the second half of the fourth millennium BC are most
strongly seen in settlement patterns and social structures (Nowicki 1999). A stricter
attitude to territorial rights and a greater definition of identity also probably
occurred at this time. It will be argued here that this was not an internal process
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Krzysztof Nowicki
that took place within isolated Cretan communities, but was stimulated by outside
influence. It was probably directly attributable to physical intrusion by outsiders
and most probably by immigrants arriving in a large number from the east.
The links between the changes in settlement organization in Crete and the
situation in the region east of it in the fourth millennium BC are supported by
fieldwork undertaken during the last few decades by A. Sampson in the islands
of the Dodecanese (Sampson 1987; 1988) and by the author in Crete and its
offshore islets (Nowicki 2002). These surveys have shown that a short-lasting
population peak in the Dodecanese in the latest Chalcolithic period, contemporary
with the late FN in Crete and the Cyclades – the phenomenon, first recorded by
Simpson and Lazenby (1973), was followed by an abandonment of sites and
depopulation. Quite the opposite pattern is found in Crete, where settlement
numbers increased substantially during the last few centuries of the fourth
millennium, particularly in the coastal zones. Many of these newly founded sites
were located on defensible ridges. In Crete this sudden increase in the quantity
of sites marked the beginning of the long-lasting development of Bronze Age
communities. Such ‘complementary’ changes in two neighbouring areas prompt
the conclusion that the processes were related to each other and a plausible
scenario is that at least some of the Dodecanesian population may have been
responsible for the foundation of the latest FN sites in Crete. This hypothetical
migration was probably only one element of a much broader movement of west
Anatolian people towards the west. The process probably started earlier, but
entered a decisive stage during the second half of the fourth millennium. The
most important result of the dynamic interaction that took place at that time,
between the technologically more advanced and socially more stratified western
Anatolian immigrants and the somewhat conservative south and central Aegean
islanders, was the foundation of a completely new form of settlement organization and new communication networks. Both elements were essential for the
later emergence of Bronze Age societies in Crete and the Cyclades.
The geography of FN and early EM I settlement can only be fully appreciated
in the field and the phenomenon will be better understood only when more new
evidence is published. The Neolithic settlements at Knossos and Phaistos,
however important, cannot answer all the problems related to the transition
between the Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age (e.g., Papadatos this
volume). Some processes, especially hypothetical migration(s), are better
illustrated by the great number of sites that until recently were either unknown
or almost completely ignored in general discussions of the period.
Archaeological evidence for this process is now much more substantial than
it was a few decades ago, when in 1978 Vagnetti and Belli were able to mention
only six open air settlements and five ‘undetermined’ open air sites (Vagnetti
and Belli 1978). However, this evidence is underestimated and often confused,
partly because of the lack of a clearly defined chronology and partly because of
the unjustified reservations of some scholars about the value of data from
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
Figure 13.1. Map of Crete showing location of FN sites (defensible settlements only apart from Gaidouronisi and Koufonisi). (1–24: see Figure 13.2); 25.
Traostalos; 26. Azokeramos Pentalitro; 27. Azokeramos; 28. Karoumes Kastellas; 29. Plakalona; 30. Palaikastro Kastri; 31. Palaikastro Petsofas; 32. Itanos;
33. Cape Mavros; 34. Itanos Alatopatela Site 12; 35. Itanos Site 17; 36. Adravasti Endichti; 37. Magasa Vigli; 38. Palaio Mitato; 39. Kalamafki Kypia; 40.
Petras Kefala; 41. Papadiokampos Agios Ioannis; 42. Kavousi Azoria; 43. Monastiraki Katalimata; 44. Vasiliki Kefala; 45. Vainia Stavromenos; 46. Panagia
Paplinou Rousso Charakas; 47. Koutsounari Karfi; 48. Gaidouronisi Belegrina Bay; 49. Kataprosopo Bay; 50. Vrokastro; 51. Vathi; 52. Anatoli Pandotinou
Korifi; 53. Anatoli Schistra; 54. Myrtos ‘Charakas’; 55. Mythoi Kastello; 56. Faflagos; 57. Tzermiado Kastellos; 58. Krasi Armi; 59. Malia Profitis Elias; 60.
Milatos Kastello; 61. Milatos; 62. Drepanon; 63. Dermatos Gorge; 64. Dermatos Kastrokefala; 65. Tsoutsouros; 66. Tsoutsouros Mandalos; 67. Lenda
Leontari; 68. Apesokari Vigla; 69. Gortyn; 70. Phaistos; 71. Melidoni; 72. Viran Episkopi; 73. Kerames Tseroni; 74. Drimiskos Agios Georgios; (75–87: see
Figure 13.3); 88. Patsianos Kefala; 89. Vraskas Lakoudi; 90. Imbros Gorge; 91. Anydroi Profitis Elias; 92. Palaiochora Nerovolakoi; 93. Chrisoskalitissa; 94.
Sfinari Korakas; 95. Phalasarna ‘Acropolis’; 96. Kastelli (Trachilos) Selli; 97. Tsikalaria; 98. Stavros Leras; 99. Limnes Kefali.
203
204
Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.2. Map of southeast Crete
with FN defensible sites.
1. Zakros Kalyvomouri; 2. Zakros
Gorge Kato Kastellas; 3. Kefali Agias
Paraskevis; 4. Koufotos; 5. Kokkino
Froudi; 6. Voukoliades; 7. Schinokefalo;
8. Kastellas Xerokampias; 9. Trachillas;
10. Xerokampos North; 11. Xerokampos Kastri; 12. Xerokampos Amatou
(Paranoma, Kastellakia); 13. Agia Irini
Kastri; 14. Livari Katharades; 15.
Goudouras Kastri; 16. Goudouras
Kastello; 17. Goudouras North-West;
18. Agia Triada Petrokopio; 19. Mesa
Apidia; 20. Ziros Rizoviglo; 21. Ziros
Patela; 22. Lamnoni ‘Spilia’; 23. Lamnoni (Branigan’s Site 23); 24. Koufonisi.
unexcavated sites. Now it is possible to talk of more than 100 well defined open
air late FN settlements from just the group of sites with defensible characteristics
alone (Figure 13.1; Nowicki 2002; 2004). A great number of these sites are located
on the coast and two regions are worthy of special attention for their unusually
high concentrations of settlements. The first is the eastern part of the Siteia
peninsula (Figure 13.2) and the second is the south coast of the Rethymnon
isthmus (Figure 13.3); several smaller clusters extend as far as the western coast
between Palaiochora (Figure 13.4) and Phalasarna.
A Final Neolithic Refuge Site at Katalimata
New evidence relevant to the interpretation of changes in settlement pattern in
Crete during the FN was revealed by excavations at Katalimata, located on the
isthmus of Ierapetra (Nowicki 2002: 16–20; 2008). There can be no doubt that this
inaccessible location must have been chosen for security reasons (Figure 13.5).
Katalimata is located on rocky ledges, high on the northern cliff of the Cha gorge
(ca. 290 m.a.s.l.), a location that is extremely difficult to access, but with excellent
visibility over the Ierapetra plain.
Neolithic deposits were recorded at two places on Terrace C. One consisted
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
205
Figure 13.3. Map of the Plakias area with FN defensible sites.
75. Gianniou Plati; 76. Lefkogia Timios Stavros; 77. Lefkogia Modi; 78. Ammoudi Skinias; 79. Damnoni; 80.
Plakias Korifi (Paligremnos); 81. Atsipades Korakias; 82. Mirthios Kirimianou; 83. Sellia Kastellos; 84. Sellia
Kabana; 85. Sellia Kefala; 86. Sellia Kastri; 87. Argoules Chalepa.
Figure 13.4. Map of the Palaiochora-Chrisoskalitissa area.
91. Anydroi Profitis Elias; 92. Palaiochora Nerovolakoi; 93. Chrisoskalitissa.
of an undisturbed stratum, 0.10–0.25 m in thickness, lying immediately on the
bedrock. The soil was mixed with ash, sherds and animal bones. Chipped stone,
ground stone and bone tools were also found. The second deposit was recorded
in the eastern part of the terrace. Here, only a few tiny particles of charcoal were
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Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.5. Monastiraki Katalimata from southwest (C: Terrace C with FN deposits).
Figure 13.6. FN Pottery from Monastiraki Katalimata.
noted, pottery was occasional and neither animal bones nor ground stone tools
were found (Nowicki 2008).
The pottery from Katalimata represents the native Cretan tradition of the FN,
with features dating the site towards the end of that period (Figure 13.6). It is often
burnished or polished on the surface, although not so well as the best examples
from Knossos and Phaistos, being rather dull and ranging in colour from yellowish
brown, through reddish brown, dark red, brown and black. Two sherds are decorated with incised ‘seam pattern’. The core is most often dark olive grey to black.
Inclusions consist of fine to medium grits of phyllite, sand and very fine white
chalk. The shapes are mainly bowls (open, globular, carinated), cups and larger
hole-mouthed jars; a few handles are of the strap type. The closest parallels for the
Neolithic pottery from Katalimata regarding surface treatment and form come
from Knossos Stratum II, the lower stratum at Phaistos and from the surface of
several unexcavated sites in the Ierapetra region, such as the rocky knoll of
Pandotinou Korifi, south of Anatoli, and Vainia Stavromenos (the earliest material)
(Figure 13.7; Todaro and Di Tonto this volume; Tomkins this volume). Although
the Neolithic pottery from Katalimata lacks several distinctive elements of the
earlier Phaistos FN assemblage, such as incised decoration, encrustation with red
ochre, scoring and pattern burnishing it seems that we should place the Katalimata
pottery in the period contemporary with the Phaistos and Gortyn material, close to
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
207
but probably after the end of the old Knossian ‘Late Neolithic’ phase (i.e., postStratum IIB) and earlier than Nerokourou. It would thus belong to the period
labelled by Vagnetti as the ‘early stage’ of the traditional Cretan FN period. I have
suggested elsewhere that this be labelled as FN I (Nowicki 2002) and according to
the revised Cretan Neolithic chronology by P. Tomkins this should be labelled FN
III (Tomkins this volume; 2007).
The location of Katalimata raises the question of what the reasons were for
occupation of such a defensible place in the Neolithic period. Considering the
similarities between the Katalimata material and that from Phaistos and Gortyn,
we should look for the answer perhaps not in the local situation in the Ierapetra
isthmus, but in the circumstances that led to a shift of population to high hills
throughout Crete.
The Topography of Late Final Neolithic Settlement
During FN III, Phaistos and Gortyn in the Mesara, like Katalimata and Pandotinou Korifi in the Ierapetra region, were settlements which continued the Cretan
Neolithic tradition. Changes in pottery, however, take place in the next (and final)
phase of FN and a non-Cretan origin for some of them must be considered. Among
such non-Cretan elements is the so-called ‘cheese-pot’ – a characteristic type of
vessel with holes pierced before firing under the rim – that is diagnostic of Late
Chalcolithic 3 and 4 and the transition to the Early Bronze Age all over the Aegean
(Atkinson et al. 1904: 84; Caskey 1972: 359; Renfrew 1972: 141; Sampson 1984; 1987;
Broodbank 2000: 83). The appearance of these vessels in Crete indicates external
influence. The type is common at many Cretan coastal sites founded shortly before
the beginning of the Bronze Age, that is during the latest FN (Figure 13.8),
elsewhere termed FN II (Nowicki 2002) and FN IV according to Tomkins’ revised
Cretan Neolithic chronology (see Tomkins this volume).
The most characteristic features of these newly founded latest FN (FN IV)
settlements in Crete are: (1) their defensibility, (2) their preference for coastal
locations and (3) their specific concentration in certain areas, including regions
which were marginal for later Bronze Age communities. These may indicate: (1) a
serious tension between different groups within the population, (2) a strong
orientation towards marine activity, and (3) temporary colonization of the coastal
areas without considering their environmental potential to support long-lasting
occupation. The latter two factors alone may indicate that the ‘colonization’ took
place from the sea. All these arguments, among other factors, suggest a causal
relationship between the establishment of the FN III settlements of Phaistos and
Katalimata type and the historical circumstances which preceded and led to the
foundation of new sites during FN IV, a selection of which will be presented
below.
The appearance of these new settlements can be traced all over Crete, but is
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Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.7. FN pottery from Anatoli Pandotinou
Korifi and Vainia Stavromenos.
Figure 13.8. ‘Cheese-pot’ fragments from Cretan FN
sites.
most characteristic along the coast with the same or similar patterns of site
location occurring between the Palaikastro plain in the far east and the Phalasarna
plain in the far west. Study of surface material has allowed the recognition of
several new pottery groups. The difference between the old Cretan pottery
Neolithic tradition and these new groups can be seen when we compare the
pottery from Pelekita, Katalimata, and Pandotinou Korifi, on the one hand, with
the Red Ware that dominated along the south coast between Zakros and
Phalasarna, on the other. Other types of pottery are more common along the
northern coast among which two groups are the most distinctive. The first group,
more brown than red, with sandy inclusions and organic temper, is harder than
the Red Ware and thus similar to the Late Chalcolithic pottery from the northern
and central Dodecanese. The second group, with a large amount of calcareous
and marble inclusions, seems to be linked to Cycladic FN–EB I pottery. The latter
conclusion is further supported by the occasional (but very rare) appearance of
the bowl with rolled rim on the northern coast. This shape, however, is absent or
extremely rare along the south coast.
The largest concentration of latest FN sites (FN IV) has been recorded in the
East Siteia region. Here all the available bays and other convenient natural
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
209
Figure 13.9. Plan of Livari
Katharades.
harbours were taken over by new settlements situated in elevated places. The
population of the settlements ranged from two or three households to over twenty
households. Vokotopoulos has suggested that an average settlement in the Zakros
basin was about 0.2 ha but some sites extend over an area of about 0.9 to 1.0 ha
(Vokotopoulos 2000: 130). Among the largest are Zakros Gorge Kato Kastellas
(ca. 0.8–1.0 ha), Xerokampos Kastri (ca. 0.6–0.8 ha) and Agia Irini Kastri (0.8–1.0
ha). The distribution of pottery, stone tools and in some cases architectural
remains indicates that the full extent of the estimated area of these sites was
occupied by domestic houses and their dependencies. However, precise numbers
of households and forms of spatial organization are difficult to reconstruct
because of a lack of comparanda from excavated sites. Many of these settlements
were short lasting and much of their architecture was constructed of perishable
material without any stone walls visible on the surface. On the other hand
substantial stone architecture is preserved at several sites, such as Livari
Katharades (see Schlager 1997: 15; 2001: 160), indicating a rather compact and
defensive structure for these sites, with houses attached to each other and only
small open areas left between individual units (Figure 13.9).
Earlier FN settlement in the coastal region of eastern Crete is characterized
by very small sites, representing one or at most a few families, living in more or
less temporary houses, as a rule on low hills, coastal terraces and in caves, such
as Pelekita (Figure 13.10) on the coast, and Voivoda in an inland valley. The
newly founded FN IV sites were larger and as a rule located on defensible ridges
on rocky promontories or hills dominating a coastal plain. The natural defensibility of these sites was often complemented with fortification walls (e.g.,
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Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.10. Pelekita from
south (the cave located where
path ends).
Figure 13.11. Plan of Kokkino
Froudi.
Goudouras Kastello, Kokkino Froudi, Xerokampias Kastellas and Alatopatela –
Site 12) (Nowicki 1999; Vokotopoulos 2000; Greco et al. 2002). The walls (usually
1.0 to 1.3 m thick) were constructed of large boulders, along one or two sides of
a settlement, where the access was the easiest. Other sides were either entirely or
partly defended by cliffs and very steep slopes (Figure 13.11).
Moving from the north to the south, the following coastal settlements were
founded at this time: Palaikastro Kastri, Karoumes Kastellas, Kato Zakros
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
211
Figure 13.12. FN settlement in North Xerokampos.
Figure 13.13. Agia Irini Kastri from northwest.
Kalyvomouri, Xerokampos North (Figure 13.12), Xerokampos Kastri, Agia Irini
Kastri (Figure 13.13) and Livari Katharades. Immediately behind this coastal
zone, FN IV settlements were situated in the gorges which offered convenient
communication routes to the inland uplands. In the Zakros Gorge a large FN IV
settlement was located on the summit of Kato Kastellas and in the Xerokampias
Gorge a small settlement occupied the northern part of the Kastellas ridge, which
controlled the northern entrance to the gorge. The easiest point of access to
Xerokampias Kastellas from the north was defended by a fortification wall. Close
similarities in the topographical characteristics of these and other sites in the
East Siteian region indicate that they were founded by groups of people
representing the same wave of settlers, arriving at the same time and responding
to the same historical circumstances. Karoumes Kastellas and Zakros Kalyvo-
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Krzysztof Nowicki
mouri occupied almost identical hills at the entry to the gorges on the edge of
small coastal plains with sheltered bays and sandy beaches; Xerokampos North
and Xerokampos Kastri lie at the extreme opposite ends of the Xerokampos plain
(northeast and southwest), on similar rocky terraces above the gorges; Agia Irini
Kastri and Livari Katharades were located on high and steep ridges, above small
bays formed by the mouths of gorges.
The changes between the latest FN and early EM I period in the East Siteia
peninsula were very dynamic and they are not easy to reconstruct solely on the
basis of surveys (Branigan 1998). It seems that the coastal settlements expanded
quickly to the interior. The next step in this inland expansion was the Epano
Zakros basin where a number of FN IV–EM I sites were identified by Vokotopoulos (2000). A great number of sites here were founded around the edges of
the basin on defensible ridges, protruding from the neighbouring plateaus, and
had fortification walls defending their accessible sides. The similar phenomenon
of location of sites on defensible rocky ridges and defending them by walls can
be also observed in higher inland plateaus. The largest density of sites has been
recorded in the Ziros plateau with the FN IV–EM I settlements on Rizoviglo and
Patela, on the hills above Mesa Apidi and near Agia Triada (Schlager 2001: 180;
Nowicki 2002: 25). The second cluster has been identified in the Lamnoni plateau
(Branigan 1998: 57–58; Nowicki 2002: 25–26) and another between Palaio Mitato
and Magasa (Nowicki 2002: 21).
The late FN settlement pattern consisted not only of well defined defensive
villages, but also of numerous smaller sites representing probably isolated houses
and hamlets. Good examples of such sites have been identified by Branigan in
the Lamnoni valley (Branigan 1998), and other similar sites were recorded on the
road between Ziros and Katelionas, in the valley north of Livari, in the Mesa
Apidi plateau, above Mavros Kampos (west of Epano Zakros) and in the
Xerolimni-Magasa plateau. The pottery from these latter sites shows more
advanced technology (better firing and more careful surface finishing), which
points perhaps to an early EM I date. If such a tentative dating is supported by
further research, these small dispersed sites might represent the slightly later
third phase of settlement expansion (already in early EM I), following upon
Phase 1 (initial FN IV coastal ‘colonization’) and Phase 2 (foundation of hilltop
inland settlements). In this model Phase 2, with a large number of extensive sites
on the hills dominating the East Siteian plateau, may reflect a short-lasting
expansion and concentration of FN population under unstable historical
conditions. The density of population between the end of FN and early EM I
seems to have exceeded the natural resources of the occupied land and this
phenomenon (of large settlements in the East Siteia plateaus) was not repeated
again during later prehistoric periods. One may wonder, however, why such
limitations were not realized by the FN IV settlers? The later, namely EM I–II and
MM patterns, show in the plateaus a larger dispersion of people in small hamlets
and individual farmsteads which allowed the land to be exploited in a more
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
213
efficient way, while on the coast the population was concentrated in a few
settlements. The latter phenomenon was probably related to the increasing role
of sea-trade. The main EM I–II centres developed at or around the FN IV
settlements of Palaikastro Kastri, Karoumes Kastellas and Kato Zakros Kalyvomouri. Smaller settlements continued below the FN IV hilltop sites of Xerokampos
Kastri and Livari, but most of the FN IV defensible settlements, such as Zakros
Gorge Kato Kastellas, Xerokampias Kastellas, Xerokampos North, and perhaps
Agia Irini Kastri disappeared at the end of the FN IV or in the early EM I period.
The same phenomenon is recorded in other regions of Crete, as for example in
the Ierapetra Isthmus and in western Crete.
Almost nothing is known about FN settlements west of Goudouras; poor
evidence of FN presence was recorded around Kalo Nero, but no proper
settlement has been yet found in that area. The pattern becomes better visible
again in the vicinity of Koutsounari and Ierapetra with two small sites on Karphi
above Koutsounari and Rousso Charakas (west of Panagia Paplinou) located
according to the same topographical ‘rules’ as those discussed for the East Siteia
region. The main FN–EM I settlement in the Ierapetra district, however, was
Vainia Stavromenos (Figure 13.14), which covered an area between 1.0 and 1.2
ha. This site may have played a similar role in shaping the FN–EM I settlement
system on the south coast, as Petras Kephala and Mochlos did on the northern
coast. Vainia Stavromenos was already inhabited in FN III (contemporary with
Monastiraki Katalimata and Anatoli Pandotinou Korifi), but this phase was
probably spatially restricted to the rocky knoll where the chapel now stands,
whereas by the FN IV and early EM I periods the settlement spread down to
extensive terraces to the west and southwest. Similar evidence for continuity in
occupation through the FN III and FN IV periods at the same site or on other
hills in the close vicinity was noticed in the hilly country between Kendri, Anatoli
and Myrtos.
Farther to the west, FN IV defensible settlement continues along the south
coast; Dermatos Kastrokefala and Lenda Leontari being among the most
important sites. In general, however, the pattern between Ierapetra and Kali
Limenes, along the coastal zone of the south Lasithi and Asterousia mountains,
is not very clear yet; the number of sites is much lower than in the East Siteia
peninsula and no large defensible settlements (such as Zakros Gorge Kato
Kastellas and Xerokampos Kastri) have been identified. Instead, numerous small
open air sites were recorded on the hills in the valleys which run across the
Asterousia mountains between the coast and the Mesara plain (Vasilakis 1989–
90).
The coast between Agia Galini and Preveli is mostly steep without large
open plains. The landscape changes, however, in the bay of Plakias. Archaeological reconnaissance here has identified a large number of FN sites and indicates
that FN IV settlements followed almost exactly the topographical ‘rules’ as
described for the East Siteia peninsula (Figure 13.3): all rocky promontories and
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Krzysztof Nowicki
imposing hills in the Plakias Bay and the Lefkogia valley were occupied by FN
IV sites. The strategic promontories of Paligremnos and Kastri, respectively on
the eastern and western side of Plakias Bay, were settled (and probably fortified)
at the same time as Zakros Gorge Kato Kastellas, Xerokampos Kastri, Agia Irini
Kastri, Livari and Goudouras Kastello. The largest settlements in this area –
Gianniou Plati (Figure 13.15) and Sellia Kastello – covered between 0.6 and 0.8
ha), but these were complemented by medium-sized settlements and hamlets
Figure 13.14. Vainia Stavromenos from north.
Figure 13.15. Gianniou
Plati from west.
Figure 13.16. Palaiochora
Nerovolakoi from east.
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
215
(Ammoudi Skinias). FN IV material, identified by Peatfield and Morris on the
peak of Atsipades Korakias (Morris and Batten 2000), may represent a specialized
site, located on the edge of the initial ‘colonization’ area, beyond the massifs
north of the Plakias-Lefkogia valley and looking down on the Agios Vasilios
valley. A similar site may have been located on the summit of Kirimianou, above
Mirthios, which dominates the western part of the same valley. The site was
identified only on the basis of chipped chert stone, similar to those at Korakias,
but no pottery has been recorded yet (but a similar situation was observed at
Atsipades Korakias before the site was excavated).
The westernmost part of Crete is characterized by a few, rather narrow and
not very fertile coastal plains. Yet, also here most of the plains and bays were
settled by large communities in the same late phase of FN. The largest and probably
most important in this part of Crete was Palaiochora Nerovolakoi (ca. 1.0–1.2 ha)
(Figures 13.4 and 13.16). The pottery belongs to the Red Ware group, characteristic
of the eastern and south coast, but flattened profile wishbone handles, including
those of FN III type, seem to be more common here than in eastern Crete (Figure
13.17). The existence of such a large settlement in this area makes little sense
considering that arable land is very restricted and poor. The only explanation for
the curious foundation of Nerovolakoi might be that the location was
chosen by newcomers landing here
without much knowledge of the
environmental factors. The ridge is
the most characteristic landmark
when Palaiochora is viewed from the
sea. Nerovolakoi, well defended by
cliffs on all sides and dominating the
coastal strip, would be an ideal place
for the first bridgehead after settlers
had arrived on the coast, but before
they had the chance to learn about
the landscape and its resources. Soon
after its foundation Nerovolakoi was
abandoned and by early EM I its
population had become dispersed
along the coast to the west and east
and into the interior. Never again
would a settlement of a similar size
as Nerovolakoi be built on the Palaiochora coast during the prehistoric
periods. During EM I–II the narrow
plain west of Palaiochora and the
sheltered valley of Anydroi appeared Figure 13.17. FN Pottery from Palaiochora Nerovolakoi.
216
Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.18. Plan of Sfinari
Korakas.
to have been more conducive to a stable settlement system based on agriculture
and herding.
Three FN IV citadels, similar to the type known from the Siteia region, were
identified on the extreme western coast of Crete. The first, located on the summit
of the Chrisoskalitissa ridge, is now almost completely destroyed, but sherds
and chipped stone leave no room for doubt about its character and date. The
general topography of the place and the later development of the settlement call
to mind the location and earliest history of Palakaistro Kastri. The rocky ridge of
Chrisoskalitissa, like Palaikastro Kastri, may have been only a small defensible
‘citadel’ that served a larger group of people who had settled on the coastal
terrace immediately to the south, on the other side of a little bay. The lower
settlement at Chrisoskalitissa developed during the EM I period, probably thanks
to its key position in relation to land and sea routes, and went on to become the
largest EM and MM site on the western coast (Hood 1965: 101–2).
Further to the north a FN IV site was recorded on the south edge of Sfinari
Bay, on the rocky promontory of Korakas (ca. 100 m a. s. l.) (Figure 13.18). The
summit of the ridge (ca. 100 m by 20–60 m in size) is covered with pottery of the
Palaiochora Nerovolakoi type, basically the same Red Ware group (with ‘cheesepot’ fragments) that appears at many similar settlements along the south coast of
Crete. The settlement was defended by natural cliffs and a fortification wall, the
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
217
Figure 13.19. Phalasarna East Acropolis from southwest.
remains of which can be seen along the northeast and northern edges of the ridge.
A similar wall defended the south side of the Phalasarna ridge, where another
defensible FN IV settlement was located (Figure 13.19). The Phalasarna East
Acropolis exemplifies the topographical characteristics of a FN IV coastal
settlement. The ridge is entirely encircled by high cliffs and the site can only be
accessed with difficulty from the south. The FN IV pottery, which is of the same
type as that recorded at Palaiochora Nerovolakoi and Sfinari Korakas (and similar
to the Zakros-Xerokampos group), is still visible along the southern edge of the
ridge, despite the fact that the site was intensively used during the Hellenistic
period. The same type of pottery as identified at Sfinari Korakas and Phalasarna,
perhaps representing the same group of people, was recently identified on a steep
slope immediately below the Leras Cave at Stavros (Akrotiri) on the north coast
near Chania. This site is at least 60 by 80 m in size and provides evidence for links
between the western coast and the area of the north coast in the vicinity of
Nerokourou.
First Bridgeheads – Offshore Islands
The evidence presented above suggests the existence of two main groups of
defensible sites with different pottery traditions, Phaistos and Katalimata, on
one hand, and Zakros Gorge Kato Kastellas and Palaiochora Nerovolakoi, on the
other. The first group probably represents the old Neolithic Cretan population,
218
Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.20. Map of Gaidouronisi showing location of the FN
II sites.
Figure 13.21. FN II site on Gaidouronisi from west.
while the second may correspond to immigrants that arrived from beyond Crete
and took over all the bays and coastal plains. Unexpected evidence supporting
such a reconstruction was found recently on the small islands of Koufonisi and
Gaidouronisi (Chrisi) located at a distance of ca. 6 km and 14 km respectively
from the south coast of Crete.
On Gaidouronisi a FN IV settlement, much eroded by the sea, was identified
on a small promontory that bounds Belegrina Bay on the west (Figures 13.20 and
13.21). Erosion has destroyed most of the original surface, but the exposed bedrock
is densely covered with sherds (Figure 13.22). Pottery is concentrated in several
clusters which may indicate the position of completely eroded houses. In places
the number of sherds exceeds 50 per square metre. Despite the erosion stone
constructions are visible at the highest point of the promontory and on the western
slope. The site extends over an area of ca. 0.6–7 ha (ca. 100–130 m east-west by 60–
80 m north-south). On both sides of the promontory there are sandy beaches that
would have allowed boats to land. The southern coast of Crete between Arvi and
Koutsounari (with all main landmarks) can clearly be seen from the site; visible
also is the coast of the Asterousia to the west and Koufonisi to the east. The
pottery is badly eroded by sea water and the original surface has completely worn
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
219
away. The fabric seems to indicate
some sort of relationship with the Red
Ware group, but there are even closer
similarities with the Dodecanesian
group. A small piece of Giali obsidian
in one of the sherds is the best indicator of direct links between the site
on Gaidouronisi and the area of the
central Dodecanese, namely Nisiros,
Giali and perhaps southern Kos. The
presence of large numbers of ‘cheesepots’ further supports the Dodecanesian connection. The second site on
Gaidouronisi is located on the eastern
coast, on the northern side of the Bay
of Kataprosopo. This was a hamlet or
a very small settlement, consisting
probably of a few houses, which unlike
the Belegrina site survived into the
early EM I period.
FN IV evidence on Koufonisi is of
a different character (Figure 13.2).
Several closely-spaced clusters of pottery occur along the northern coast
Figure 13.22. Pottery from the FN II (IV) site on
and the site is either of an enormous
Gaidouronisi.
size (ca. 500 m by 50–80 m) or alternatively there are two sites with several
small clusters of pottery between them. The first large concentration of pottery
(mixed with MM and LM sherds) is located on high ground on the northern
promontory and spreads out to the southeast for a distance of about 200 m. The
second main concentration of sherds is situated about 100 m northwest of the
chapel and covers an area of at least 0.5 ha. In the southern part of the site (or
cluster of sites) the pottery is almost exclusively of the Red Ware type, whereas
in the northern part a substantial amount of the sherds belong to the harder
Dodecanesian group. The occupation of this part of Koufonisi can be more easily
explained if we reconstruct the original shape of the island as it was in the
second half of the fourth millennium BC. Most probably, the two little islets that
at present extend a few hundred metres to the north were at that time a crescent
shaped peninsula, forming a large bay sheltered from northwestern winds. The
large size of the site and the quantity of pottery indicate a very substantial
number of people living or temporarily residing here in the FN IV period, at the
same time as defensible ridges were being suddenly settled on the opposite side
of the narrow strip of sea, separating the island from the Cretan coast. Because
220
Krzysztof Nowicki
Koufonisi is an island too small to support such a large community for a longer
period we have to assume that the FN IV settlement was only a temporary
phenomenon during a time of dramatic change in the East Aegean.
On both islands (Gaidouronisi and Koufonisi) FN IV sites were located on
low coastal terraces without any natural or artificial defences. This prompts the
question of why, in the same period, people should have chosen such different
locations for their settlements, namely undefended extensive sites on Gaidouronisi and Koufonisi and defensive settlements on the Cretan coast? The most
plausible answer must take into consideration the likely geo-political situation in
Crete at the time. Crete was a large island with the substantial native population
concentrated in a few large centres such as Knossos and Phaistos and dispersed
in smaller groups through all geographical zones. It is hard to see how the
arrival of new people, arriving probably in substantial numbers, could have
occurred without resistance and tension regarding the exploitation and ownership of land. Both sides of any potential conflict had good reasons to feel insecure.
The situation on little islets, such as Koufonisi and Gaidouronisi, situated a few
miles off the Cretan shore, would have been different. They could not be defended
against an enemy coming from the sea, even if they had been temporarily or
seasonally occupied before FN IV, a hypothesis that is not yet proven. On the
other hand these islets were perfect bridgeheads which could have been used by
newcomers as the first temporary sites before a further expansion onto the Cretan
coast. A similar role may have been played by other ‘habitable’ islands around
Crete, such as Dionisades, Pseira, Dia and Gavdos.
The Dodecanesian Connection?
These latest FN coastal settlements in Crete must be seen as representing a
phenomenon contemporary with the foundation of many latest FN settlements
throughout the Cyclades, of which Agia Irini Period I and Paoura on Keos are
among the best known (Figure 13.23). Many of these new Cycladic settlements
had topographical characteristics similar to the sites in Crete, as exemplified by a
small settlement on a rocky ridge at Kampos Komikias on the western coast of
Naxos (Figure 13.24) and Agios Ioannis Kastri on Astypalaia. It is less clear, however, if the hilltop sites such as Minoa on Amorgos and Chora on Ios belonged to
the same group of possible immigrants or represented, like Katalimata in Crete,
the earlier population of those islands.
When analyzing the phenomenon of latest FN settlement in Crete, special
attention has to be paid to the islands of the Dodecanese, where a great number of
Late Chalcolithic 3 and 4 sites have been identified by Simpson and Lazenby
(Simpson and Lazenby 1973) and more recently by Sampson (Sampson 1987)
(Figure 13.25). However, the problem of Late Chalcolithic 3–4 (late FN) defensible
sites in the Dodecanese requires more field research. The site of Kastri on Astypalea
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
221
Figure 13.23. (above) Map
of the South Aegean. 1.
Ag. Irini on Kea, 2. Paoura
on Kea, 3. Phylakopi on
Milos, 4. Chora Kastri on
Ios, 5. Kampos Komikianos
on Naxos, 6. Minoa on
Amorgos, 7. Ag. Ioannis
Kastri on Astypalaia.
Figure 13.24. (left) Kampos
Komikias on Naxos.
has topographical characteristics very similar to Cretan coastal sites. The same
can be said about three sites on Symi: Pedi Gria (Figure 13.26), Chora Kastro and
the site south of and above Panormitis, which is different from that on the northern
promontory of the same bay (Sampson 1987: fig. 60). The easiest points of access
to Pedi Gria and Panormitis were defended by walls which call to mind the
defensive constructions identified at FN IV settlements on Crete. On Tilos a
defensible site at Livadia Faneromeni (Figure 13.27), defended by cliffs and
222
Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.25. The Dodecanese with the
FN sites mentioned in the text. KASOS:
1. The site south of the Airport, 2.
Chelatros; KARPATHOS: 1. Finiki, 2.
Moulas, 3. Leftoporos, 4. Ag. Theodoros,
5. Gigla, 6. Vouno; TILOS: 1. Livadia
Faneromeni, 2. Chora Kastri; SYMI: 1.
Panormitis, 2. Pedi Gria, 3. Chora;
KOS: 1. The site near Ag. Stefanos;
KALYMNOS: 1. Chrysocheroi, 2.
Vathy; LEROS: 1. Partheni.
probably also partly by a wall, dominated the southern part of the coastal plain.
Some sites were located at a slightly greater distance from the sea, but also on
hills or rocks dominating their immediate vicinity (e.g., Chrysocheroi on
Kalymnos), others were founded on small islands that offered scarcely any
agricultural hinterland, such as Kastri on Alimnia and a series of sites on Giali
(Sampson 1987). Settlements were also located on more gently-sloping hills (e.g.,
Astypalaia Vai), low promontories and coastal plains (e.g., Partheni on Leros).
This period is also well represented on the two Dodecanesian islands nearest
to Crete: Karpathos and Kasos (Melas 1985; pers. comm.). The site on the rocky
promontory of Moulas on Kasos (Figure 13.28) (Nowicki 2004: 97) must have been
founded at that time, but it is unusual in that occupation continued into the EB I
and II periods. Its location calls to mind the topography of Palaikastro Kastri. Some
of the FN defensible sites on Karpathos were defended by walls, as is indicated by
poor remains of such constructions at Afiartis Gigla and Afiartis Vouno (Melas
1985; pers. comm.). Sites along the western coast of Kasos appear to have a slightly
different character. Here the wide coastal strip, stretching for at least 3 km (between
the airport and the southern edge of the coastal plain), is densely scattered with
Red Ware of a type identical to that characteristic of eastern and southern Crete.
The sites must represent extensive but rather short-lasting occupation (individual
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
223
Figure 13.26. Pedi Gria
on Symi from northwest.
Figure 13.27. Livadia
Faneromeni on Tilos from
southwest.
Figure 13.28. Moulas on
Karpathos from northwest.
houses, hamlets, small settlements) located close to the sea without any concern
about security. The topographical situation is identical with that recorded on the
northern coast of Koufonisi (see above). The most plausible interpretation of this
choice of site location is, like Koufonisi, that the entire area was temporarily
occupied by a large number of people that were on their way somewhere else, most
probably to Crete. The site of Trapeza on the Chelatros Bay in the southern part of
Kasos (Melas 1985: 46) must have been founded in the Late Chalcolithic (FN)
period, but has occupation continuing into EB I. A few sherds from this site exhibit
similarities with the material from Vainia Stavromenos.
An interesting difference between Crete and the Dodecanese, however, is the
fact that, whereas in Crete (and the Cyclades) the appearance of a large number
224
Krzysztof Nowicki
Figure 13.29. Pottery from the Dodecanese (D) and
Crete (C). D 1: Partheni on Leros (after Sampson
1987, Figure 128); D 2: the site near Ag. Stefanos
on Kos; D 3: Panormitis on Symi; D 4 and D 5:
Pedi Gria on Symi; D 6 and D 7: the site near Ag.
Stefanos on Kos; D 8: Kalythies on Rhodes (after
Sampson 1987: fig. 25); C 1: Ag. Paraskevi
(Zakros); C 2: Xerokampos Kastri; C 3: Livari
Katharades; C 4: Dermatos Kastrokefala; C 5: Xerokampos Kastri; C 6: Ag. Irini.
Figure 13.30. Pottery from the Dodecanese (D) and
Crete (C). D 1 and D 2: Kastro on Alimnia (after
Sampson 1987: fig. 105); D 3: Panormitis on Symi; D
4 and D 5: Pedi Gria on Symi; D 6: Partheni on Leros
(after Sampson 1987: fig. 120); D 7: Koumelo on
Rhodes (after Sampson 1987: fig. 88); D 8 and D 9:
Partheni on Leros (after Sampson 1987: fig.120); D 10
Koumelo on Rhodes (after Sampson 1987: fig. 87). C 1
and C 2: Dermatos Kastrokefala; C 3: Ag. Irini; C 4:
Gaidouronisi; C 5: Palaiochora Nerovolakoi; C 6:Ag.
Irini; C 7: Livari; C 8 and C 9: Gaidouronisi; C 10:
Palaiochora Nerovolakoi.
of new FN IV sites marked the beginning of substantial population growth that
continued through EB I–II, the Late Chalcolithic 3–4 population peak in the
Dodecanese is followed by a sudden drop in the number of settlements, probably
indicating considerable depopulation. The situation on Karpathos may have been
somewhat different, but here EB I–II sites still have defensible characteristics.
This may by another important argument in favour of migration from western
Anatolia and the Dodecanese towards Crete. The similarities between the pottery
of the Cretan and Dodecanesian sites must be seen as very meaningful in this
context (Figures 13.29 and 13.30).
The Final Neolithic to Early Bronze Age Transition
225
Summary
I have argued elsewhere that the widespread shift of settlement to higher and
more defensible hills throughout Crete and the foundation of new sites along the
Cretan coast are linked processes (Nowicki 2002). Settlements of the Phaistos
and Katalimata types may have anticipated (in FN III) the coastal sites of
Xerokampos Kastri and Palaiochora Nerovolakoi type (in FN IV). FN III and FN
IV pottery might be seen as partly overlapping and the differences between FN
III and FN IV pottery may reflect not only a chronological sequence, but also the
different origins of the pottery producers. Sites of the Phaistos and Katalimata
type were probably founded by Cretans looking for security at a time when
interaction with the outside world, rather than internal problems, forced them to
move to better-defended locations. The newcomers that settled in the coastal
areas, in particular along the eastern and southern coasts, did not feel safe either
and looked for defensible promontories or rocky ‘acropoleis’ above coastal plains
and bays. The two types of site represent two stages of a historical process of
conflict between the local Cretan Neolithic population and their Chalcolithic
neighbours coming from the east. Unstable settlement and signs of conflicts, as
recorded on the Dodecanesian islands, are indications that the problems were
coming probably from the Anatolian coast. This new population element must
have consisted of several different groups, a situation that can be reconstructed
from different types of pottery. Southern Crete was dominated by the Red Ware
group, the development of which shows direct links with later painted EM I
pottery. Similar pottery was recorded in the south Dodecanese, in particular
Karpathos and Kasos, but also Rhodes and Symi. However, Red Ware in the
south Dodecanese is commonly found together with pottery showing a north
Dodecanesian influence (as represented for example by fabrics with glassy quartz).
The northern coast of Crete yields more evidence for ceramic links with the
north and central Dodecanese and Cyclades. Early Minoan cultural differentiation in Crete may have been due to the complexity of the population structure
that emerged during the crucial period of the latest FN (Betancourt 1999; Hayden
2003). Analysis of settlement patterns and how they change together with evidence
for pottery differentiation allow four main elements of population to be proposed:
(1) a native Neolithic Cretans, (2) a Red Ware group which seems to be particularly
strong in eastern and southern Crete, (3) a northern and central Dodecanesian
group, well represented now at Kephala Petras and several other coastal regions
in northeast Crete. At Petras, however, this latter group may have been eventually
replaced by a group close to or identical with the later phase of the Red Ware
group (see Papadatos this volume), and (4) a group related to the earliest phase
of the Pelos culture in the Cyclades, identifiable in some pockets along the northern
coast with occasional links traceable as far as Chrisoskalitissa in the far west. All
the groups share some similar characteristics in their material culture and had
probably been in contact long before the process of dramatic settlement change
226
Krzysztof Nowicki
started in the Aegean. The most enigmatic seems to be the Red Ware group and
particularly its interaction with the very strong native element in the Mesara.
The number and size of sites suggest that their inhabitants could not just come
from the Dodecanese, but had to derive also from the Anatolian mainland. The
archaeological evidence presented above, supports Peter Warren’s earlier
hypothesis of ‘some movement of people into Crete from the west Anatolian
region to join the Late Neolithic population at the end of the fourth millennium
and beginning of the third’ (Warren 1973: 43), and Sinclair Hood’s idea that
‘Early Minoan IA reflected the coming of immigrants’ (Hood 1990a; 1990b: 368).
In a chronological sense the Cretan Neolithic could be said to end with the
FN III period, while FN IV could be seen as the beginning of a new era in a social
and economic development that more or less smoothly continued through the
EM I period. Although analysis of settlement patterns does not provide a complete
picture, it is certainly more relevant to the problem than the hitherto more usual
analyses of tombs and their contents. The locations of many of these sites are
strongly orientated towards the sea and defensibility was clearly a serious concern.
These two facts tell us something about the character of the inhabitants of these
settlements. After colonization in FN IV the settlement pattern underwent
substantial changes during the early EM I period. This led to a better exploitation
of natural resources and better control of the hinterland. Tensions between
different groups in Crete and beyond the island continued at least for a time into
EM I, but the development of a new form of social organization and a new
political system was already under way. This created the conditions for more
stable settlement, at least in some areas and particularly along the northern coast.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the organizers of the conference for the invitation to speak
and other members of the Department, in particular Umberto Albarella, for their
excellent hospitality in Sheffield. I am much obliged to the directors of the
Chalasmenos Project, Metaxia Tsipopoulou and the late Wiliam Coulson, for
their invitation to participate, which allowed me to excavate at Katalimata.
Yiannis Papadatos, Simona Todaro, Peter Tomkins and Manolis Melas kindly
shared with me their knowledge of the material from Petras, Phaistos, Knossos
and Karpathos; Saro Wallace and Peter Tomkins helped with editing the English.
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