Strange Games: Some Iron Age
examples of a four-player board game?
Eddie Duggan∗
Abstract
A late Iron Age cremation grave, dated to the second half of the
first century BC, excavated from a site in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, contains an apparently unique set of glass gaming pieces.
The gaming pieces are visually striking because of their distinctive appearance: the twenty-four opaque or semi-translucent coloured glass
domes (six white pieces, six yellow, six red and six green), each with
adorned with decorative spiral motifs, seem to comprise a complete set
of game pieces for what may be an unknown four-player game. They
were found in a rich burial containing five Dressel 1B wine amphorae
and an Italian silver cup, along with other grave goods.
Some account of the pieces is given by Donald Harden in Stead’s
archaeological report (Stead, 1967), along with a scientific analysis by
Tony Werner and Mavis Bimson, based on spectrographic and X-ray
examination.
Harden describes the game pieces as being “of the greatest interest
and rarity,” noting “not only is there is no comparable set extant;
there is not even a single gaming piece of the same form and decoration
which can be cited as a parallel, whether contemporary or not” (Stead,
1967 p. 15). Harden goes on to suggest “the places where we could
most reasonably expect to find parallels to these pieces are eastern
and southern Gaul, the Alpine region and the upper Rhineland, and
the Po valley, and it is likely that in time parallels to them in or more
of those areas will turn up” (Stead, 1967 p. 16).
∗
University Campus Suffolk. The author wishes to acknowledge the support and encouragement of Professor David Gill who facilitated this UCS-funded research project.
The author also expresses thanks to Dr Laura Minarini of Bologna Civic Museum for her
kind and generous assistance and invaluable support in providing access to the Bologna
collection, and for providing photographs of items in storage. Thanks are also due to
Anna Maria Barbanera and staff at the National Archaeological Museum, Ancona, for
kind assistance and for permission to photograph the Montefortino artefacts and other
items.
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
While Harden’s account of the glass pieces emphasises their unique
significance for the double-spiral motif, and Werner and Bimson’s analysis suggests the yellow pieces show the earliest example of the use of
lead and tin as an opacifying agent, the pieces are also thought to
represent a unique example of a game for four players, described by
Stead as “similar to a game played in India on a board with cruciform
marking. This game was [. . . ] patented with the name ‘ludo’ ” (Stead
1967, p. 19).
Footnotes in Stead suggest that other examples of what could also
be glass gaming pieces for a four player game—or at least incomplete
sets of glass gaming pieces that can be organised into four groups by
design or colour—have also been found in a number of Italian locations,
including sites in the Po Valley.
This paper will seek to present several examples of Iron Age Italian
gaming pieces, and to offer some comparison to the Welwyn Garden
City pieces in order to draw attention to what may be examples of a
hitherto overlooked four-player game. (A version of this paper, without
the note on game boards, appears in the Board Game Studies Journal
9 (2015) pp. 17–40.)
A late Iron Age cremation grave, dated to the second half of the first
century BC, is widely known for the visually striking and apparently unique
set of glass gaming pieces it contains. The game pieces are included in a rich
burial containing five Dressel 1B wine amphorae and an Italian silver cup
along with other grave goods, including some thirty-five items of pottery.
According to the curator’s note accompanying the British Museum Online
Collection, this Welwyn Garden City grave is the “richest Iron Age burial to
be found in Britain”. A reconstruction of the tomb is on permanent display
in Room 50 of the British Museum.
Figure 1: Reconstruction of the Welwyn Garden City late Iron Age burial. 1967.0202. AN784753. Source: British Museum © Trustees of the British Museum.
Proceedings of Board Game Studies Colloquium xvii, p. 77–101
Eddie Duggan
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The imported goods and the wine amphorae are indicators of elite status,
signifying sophistication and wealth. Simon Ó Faoláin and Antone Minard
discuss the importance of wine to Celtic culture in western Europe, describing the wine trade in Britain and Gaul in the late C1st BC as operating on
an industrial scale (Ó Faoláin and Minard in Koch, ed. 2005, p. 1808).
The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (flourished Sicily, C1st BC) expressed incredulity at the high price Celts were willing to pay to satiate
their desire for the luxurious liquid which they drank “unmixed and [. . . ]
without moderation”. According to Diodorus, Italian merchants trading
with Celts in the first century BC were apparently able to exchange one
amphora of wine (about 39 litres) for the “incredible price” of one slave
(Diodorus, Book 5, Chapter 26, § 3).
Heléne Whittaker discusses Iron Age games in terms of Thorstein Veblen’s notion of “conspicuous leisure”, a concept that describes the processes
by which members of a social elite distinguish themselves by engaging in
non-productive activity. While Whittaker concentrates primarily on Scandinavian examples, the Welwyn Garden City game pieces are cited as an
illustration of the association of leisure with status (Whittaker 2006, pp.
103-104).
The Welwyn Garden City gaming pieces (1967.02-02.42–65), are visually
striking because of their distinctive appearance: the twenty-four opaque or
semi-translucent coloured glass domes (six white pieces, six yellow, six red
and six green), each adorned with decorative spiral motifs, seem to comprise
a complete set of pieces of what is thought to be an otherwise unknown fourplayer game.
Figure 2: Gaming-pieces from the Welwyn Garden City burial. 1967.02-02.58,
AN1210989. Source: British Museum © Trustees of the British Museum
Proceedings of Board Game Studies Colloquium xvii, p. 77–101
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
Some account of the glass gaming pieces is given by Donald Harden
in Ian Stead’s archaeological report (Stead, 1967), along with a scientific
analysis by Tony Werner and Mavis Bimson, based on spectrographic and
X-ray examination.
Harden describes the game pieces as being “of the greatest interest and
rarity”, noting “not only is there is no comparable set extant; there is not
even a single gaming piece of the same form and decoration which can be
cited as a parallel, whether contemporary or not” (Stead, 1967, p. 15).
Harden goes on to suggest “the places where we could most reasonably
expect to find parallels to these pieces are eastern and southern Gaul, the
Alpine region and the upper Rhineland, and the Po valley, and it is likely
that in time parallels to them in one or more of those areas will turn up”
(Stead, 1967, p. 16).
Figure 3: Glass gaming-pieces. 1967.02-02.54, AN00788394. Source: British Museum © Trustees of the British Museum.
While Harden’s account of the glass pieces emphasises their unique significance for the double-spiral motif, and Werner and Bimson’s analysis suggests the yellow pieces show the earliest example of the use of lead and tin
as an opacifying agent, the pieces are also thought to represent a unique example of a game for four players, described by Stead as “similar to a game
played in India on a board with cruciform marking. This game was [. . . ]
patented with the name ‘ludo’ ” (Stead, 1967, p. 19).
While Stead concludes his discussion of the Welwyn Garden City pieces
with the observation that they “do not readily correspond to any known classical board game (Stead 1967, p. 19), he also notes, intriguingly, that similar
glass game pieces have been excavated from two tombs at Montefortino and
also from two tombs near Bologna.
Stead remarks that the Montefortino and Bologna pieces, “could be inProceedings of Board Game Studies Colloquium xvii, p. 77–101
Eddie Duggan
81
terpreted as part-sets from a complete 24 [and] could be divided into four
groups distinguished by colour or design, and no such group had more than
six pieces” (Stead 1967, p. 19). However, Stead also observes that none of
the Italian pieces, described by Eduardo Brizio in his archaeological reports
of 1887 and 1899, “resemble those from Welwyn Garden City in detail”
(Stead 1967, p. 19).
Brizio’s brief descriptions and accompanying illustrations of the pieces
from the Montefortino Tombs shed little more light. For example, of Tomb
23, Brizio writes:
Ma notevoli in questa tomba femminile sono tre dadi di osso, con
una ventina di
bottoni variegati di pasta vitrea, che usavansi per segnare i punti
nel giuoco dei
dadi. (Brizio 1899,
p. 682).
[C]onsiderable in this woman’s tomb are three bone dice, with
twenty variegated
buttons in glass paste, which were used to score points in the
game of dice.
Figure 4: Montefortino Tomb 23. Game pieces: items 10 and 11 (centre right).
Source: Brizio (1899) Table 5. http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/
monant1899/0441
Brizio’s comment on the game pieces and dice in Tomb 35 is even more
brief:
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
Due dadi cubici di osso e dodici pallottole emisferiche di pasta vitrea, di
vario colore. (Brizio 1899, p. 699).
Two cubic bone dice and twelve hemispherical bullets of glass paste, in
various colours.
Figure 5: Montefortino Tomb 35. Game pieces: items 4 and 5 (top right).
Source: Brizio (1899) Table 11. http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/
monant1899/0447
Montefortino
The Montefortino necropolis is located in Arcevia, in the present day province
of Ancona on the Adriatic coast of Italy. The area was settled in the C5th or
C4th BC by a Gallic tribe called the Senones. The site is significant because
the so-called ”Montefortino” type helmet, with distinctive jockey-cap shape
and detachable cheek-plates, was first discovered here. The cemetery, in use
from the C4th to C3rd BC, also yielded the so-called “Montefortino hoard”
of late C4th –early C3rd BC silver plate from the tomb of a Gallic warrior,
which is now housed in New York’s Metropolitan Museum of Art (Oliver
and Luckner 1977, pp. 64–65). The Montefortino cemetery is also imporProceedings of Board Game Studies Colloquium xvii, p. 77–101
Eddie Duggan
83
tant, as Daniele Vitali writes, for ”numerous items which demonstrated the
process of the assimilation of Greek and Italian influences in the material
culture of the Senones who had settled on the eastern slopes of the Central
Apennines” (Vitali in Koch, ed. 2005, p. 1308).
Montefortino Tomb 23
Brizio’s account of Montefortino Tomb 23 describes a female inhumation
burial. This particular grave is dated to the late C3rd –early C2nd BC: the
Etruscan mirror and gold earrings are datable to the first quarter of C2nd
BC (Museo Archeologico Nazionale delle Marche). The supine body was
aligned north-south in a rectangular grave (3.6m x 2m x 1.8m deep).
According to Brizio, three iron nails with large flat circular heads in the
area around the skull indicate burial in a wooden crate or casket.
Figure 6: Montefortino Tomb 23. Museum Display. Room 22. Museo Archeologico
Nazionale delle Marche. Photograph by the author (with permission).
The contents of this rich grave, catalogued as twenty-two items, include
a gold twisted-wire torque, a pair of gold snake-head bracelets, a pair of
gold disc earrings with inverted pyramid pendants, a gold ring incised with
a Minerva decoration, along with a bronze Etruscan mirror engraved with
an image of the goddess Lasa and a bone tube for hairpins, together with
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
accessories for the symposium: a bell Krater (a large, wide-mouthed vessel
used for mixing wine with water), a small black glaze amphora or wine
container, a black glaze Skyphos (two-handled wine-cup), a bronze situla
(bucket) and a bronze olpe (used to serve wine from the Krater).
Figure 7: Montefortino Tomb 23. Display. Room 22. Museo Archeologico
Nazionale delle Marche. Photograph by the author (with permission).
The jewellery adorned the body. Brizio notes that, while the ring was
on the right hand, the torque was around the neck and the earrings hung:
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L’orecchino doveva pendere dal lobo auricolare mediante un gancetto
che, all’atto
della scoperta, ancora aderiva al disco superiore, e che in seguito
andò perduto.”
(Brizio 1899, p. 682).
From the earlobe using a hook that, when discovered, still adhered to the upper disk and which later was lost.
The amphora, other vessels and tableware were placed near the head
while the mirror, gaming pieces, hairpin tube, spits and firedogs were near
the feet.
The gaming pieces consist of twenty glass counters and three cubic bone
dice. The game pieces themselves have an interesting appearance:
Figure 8: Montefortino Tomb 23. Display. Room 22. Museo Archeologico
Nazionale delle Marche. Photograph by the author (with permission).
The twenty pieces in Montefortino Tomb 23 are of differing colours and
patterns. It is possible to identify four different types:
• black glass with an orange/deep-yellow swirl pattern
• grey glass with a white swirl pattern
• plain un-patterned glass (in black, grey and white)
• grey glass with a concentric ring pattern
Twelve of the pieces are decorated with a swirl pattern. Of these, six
appear to be black pieces with an orange/deep-yellow swirl while six appear
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
to be grey with a white swirl. Four pieces (one black, one grey and two
white pieces) appear to be plain, while a ring pattern is evident on the other
four pieces.
Manuela Dilliberto and Thierry Lejars offer a different description of the
pieces:
Les vingt jetons en verre de la tombe XXIII de la nécropole de
Montefortino sont
associés à trois dés cubiques en os. Les jetons sont de couleurs
différentes (un
noir, deux blancs et dix-sept bleus). Les bleus sont unis (quatre)
ou à décor
spiralé (sept de couleur blanchâtre et six de couleur jaunâtre).
(Diliberto and
Lejars 2011, p. 444)
Twenty glass tokens of tomb XXIII of the Montefortino necropolis are associated
with three cubic bone dice. The chips are different colors (black,
two white and
seventeen blue). Blue united (four) or spiral decoration (seven
and six whitish
yellowish).
It is not clear why Diliberto and Lejars describe the single plain dark
piece as “black” while the remaining dark pieces and grey pieces are all
described as “blue”. However, it should be noted that while Diliberto and
Lejars include photographs of many of the game pieces in their survey, the
pieces from Montefortino Tomb 23 are represented by a drawing of one
spiral-patterned piece (see Dilliberto and Lejars 2011, Fig. 4).
Diliberto and Lejars note the spiral pattern in these pieces is in the form
of a single thread rather than two threads, as is the case with the Fillotrano
pieces (also housed in the Ancona museum), and some of the other spiralpatterned pieces they have gathered.
The ring pattern appears to differ from the swirl decoration. The ring
pattern may differ from the spiral due to the manufacturing process, or to
the opacifying agent used to make the pattern, or perhaps due to some other
form of erosion.
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Montefortino Tomb 35
Brizio’s description and inventory of Montefortino Tomb 35 records a male
inhumation burial with fragments of a wooden casket and several brass studs.
It may be that the game pieces, described by Brizio as:
Erano altresı̀ due dadi cubici di osso e dodici pallottole emisferiche di pasta vitrea,
di vario colore, usate per segnare i punti nel giuoco dei dadi
(Brizio 1899, p. 699)
Two cubic bone dice and twelve hemispherical bullets of glass
paste, in various colours,
used to keep score in the game of dice
were placed on top of the casket as Brizio notes that the game pieces, along
with iron scissors, were between the fragments of wood. The accompanying
illustration suggests the game pieces were at or near the feet of the body.
Figure 9: Montefortino Tomb 35. Tomb 35: Brizio (1899) detail. Source: Salviamo
la Necropoli di Montefortino. http://www.trigallia.com/montefortino/scavi.
asp
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
The contents of Montefortino Tomb 35 are on display at Museo Archeologico Statale di Arcevia, which is in a somewhat remote rural location
difficult to reach via public transport. Regrettably, due to limitations of
time, language and budget, it hasn’t been possible to visit Arcevia museum
to inspect these pieces.
Bologna
Stead refers to two tombs in the Bologna area that Brizio identified as containing gaming pieces that could be seen as incomplete sets of 24 pieces:
There are sets of glass gaming pieces, or part sets, from four
Celtic graves in
Cisalpine Gaul. These graves, two from Montefortino and two
near Bologna, had
from 12 to 22 gaming pieces which could be interpreted as part
sets from a
complete 24-for each could be divided into four groups distinguished by colour or
design, and no such group had more than six pieces. But the
Bologna and
Montefortino gaming pieces do not resemble those from Welwyn
Garden City in
detail-they are smaller and lower, and those which are decorated
have a single
spiral or streaking (Stead 1967, pp. 18-19).
Stead identifies the tombs “near Bologna” in a footnote: Benacci tomb
953 (3 dice and 22 pieces) and Ceretolo (17 pieces), each supported by a
reference to Brizio (1887). Stead’s footnote also makes a broad reference to
“other Italian gaming pieces”, including several examples in the collection
of Bologna Civic Museum of Archaeology, and two examples each in the
Archaeological Museum, Florence (from Populonia and Todi), and the Villa
Guilia Museum, Rome (from Todi and Palestrina). We will concentrate here
only on the pieces from Bologna.
Benacci Tomb 953
Benacci Tomb 953 is dated to the early C3rd BC. This rich male inhumation
burial was found to contain remains adorned with a gold crown of laurels
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and an iron bracelet. Symposium apparatus, including five bronze kyathoi
(dipping cups), a bronze oinochoe (wine jug) and an iron candelabra, is
placed to the left of the body, near the head. Martial items, including iron
sword, iron javelins and a bronze helmet are near the feet, along with a
bronze strigil. The gaming pieces and dice are placed in the space between
the two sets of equipment.
Figure 10: Benacci Tomb 953. Sketch based on Brizio (1899) “Tomba XXXVII”.
Source: Vitali (1992) p. 285.
According to Brizio, the gaming pieces consist of:
Tre dadi di avorio disgraziatamente molto logori; n. 22 semisferette di pasta vitrea per
segnare I punti nel giuoco dei dadi, e di colori diversi: 6 sono di
color bianco chiaro;
6 di color bianco sporco; 5 di color rosso e cinque di tinta scura.
(Brizio, 1887: pp. 475–476).
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
Three ivory dice, unfortunately very worn; 22 glass paste hemispheres to score
points in the game of dice, in different colours: 6 are white in
colour clear,
6 off-white, 5 red in colour and five dark tint.
Figure 11: Benacci Tomb 953. Twenty-one limestone game pieces. Museo Civico
Archeologico di Bologna. Photograph by the author (with permission).
The contents of Benacci Tomb 953 are on display in Bologna Civic Museum of Archaeology (Room 11, Case 4). However, only twenty-one game
pieces are present: it appears that one has been lost since Brizio made his
inventory. It’s also difficult to group the pieces in exactly the same way as
Brizio, not only because one piece is missing, but because the remaining
pieces do not easily fall into sets of white, off-white, red and “dark tint”.
While Brizio describes the pieces as glass paste, “pasta vitrea” (Brizio 1887,
p. 475), they are in fact made of limestone.
It’s worth noting Daniele Vitali neglects to correct Brizio’s misidentification of the Benacci warrior’s gaming pieces. Vitali’s study of the excavation
records allows him to identify several discrepancies between Zannoni and
Brizio, along with a number of other errors and omissions. For example, Vitali shows that Zannoni re-positioned the bronze helmet for the photographs
(Vitali 1992, p. 289) and he also notes Brizio’s egregious assertion that the
cylindrical bone tube (seen beside the right foot of the skeleton in Vitali’s
sketch) was positioned over the shank of the sword (Vitali 1992, p. 289;
cf Brizio 1887, pp. 474–475). Vitali himself refers to the gaming pieces as
coloured limestone, “calcare colorato” (Vitali 1992, p. 290), while Zannoni
used the term “pietruzze”:
Verso i piedi tre dadi, e semisferette di pietruzze a colori (Zannoni in Vitali
1992, p. 286).
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Towards the feet three dice, and hemisphere of coloured stones.
Ceretolo
The Ceretolo tomb has been the focus of some considerable controversy.
In 1877, the unearthing of objects during agricultural work in Ceretolo, a
suburb to the west of Bologna, led to the discovery of a tomb containing a
skeleton with a sword, spear, and other items, including a bronze oinochoe
with a figural handle of a bacchanalian youth. The artefacts from Ceretolo,
also known as The Ceretolo Warrior’s Tomb, are now part of the Celtic collection on display in Room XI of the Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna.
Figure 12: Ceretolo. Display. Room XI, Case 8. Museo Civico Archeologico di
Bologna. Photograph by the author (with permission).
At the time of their discovery, the landowner was apparently unaware
of the necessity to report the find, and it was some months before Giovanni
Gozzadini excavated the site. Controversy arose from a number of concerns:
some items had been misplaced and the location of some finds was inaccurately reported, as well as other apparent irregularities. Also, Gozzadini
suggested the material was Etruscan while Zanonni disagreed, identifying
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
the fibulae as Gallic. While Daniele Vitali dissects the controversy (Vitali
1992, pp. 380–390), it has no material effect on the game pieces attributed
to the Ceretolo tomb, other than the fact that while eighteen pieces were
originally recorded, one has subsequently been lost (however, some other
archaeological confusion at another Bologna necropolis will be of greater
interest later).
The Ceretolo grave is dated to the second quarter of C3rd BC. The
rich male inhumation burial includes a bronze oinochoe with figural handle,
depicting a naked youth in a bacchanalian revel. The vessel is “probably
from a southern Etruscan workshop” (Minarini in Morigi Govi ed. 1989, p.
109). Other grave goods include an iron sword and iron scabbard, an iron
chain for suspending the scabbard, and the umbo from an iron shield, along
with other items, including the remaining seventeen dull-coloured limestone
game pieces. Laura Minarini describes the grave goods as ”among the richest
and most complex found in the Boii territory” (Minarini in Morigi Govi ed.
1989, p. 109).
Figure 13: Ceretolo. Bronze oinochoe with figural handle. Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Photograph by the author (with permission).
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Brizio’s report cites Gozzadini’s note: “on the chest eighteen hemispheres
of a limestone arranged in series” (Brizio 1887, p. 495). Brizio adds the
footnote:
Le semisfere sono ora in numero di 17, una forse è andata perduta (Brizio 1887, p. 495).
The hemispheres now number seventeen, one perhaps has been
lost.
Brizio also notes the pieces could not have been a necklace as they were
un-pierced, reasoning from that, and from the colours:
4 di color rosso, 4 di color bianco, 6 di color bigio scuro venato,
e 3 di color giallo
diventa molto probabile che fossero adoperate per il giuoco del
dadi, quantunque
questi ultimi non siansi trovati. (Brizio 1887, p. 495).
four red, four white, six dark grey veined and three yellow, it
becomes very probable
that they were employed for the game of dice although the latter
was not found.
Figure 14: Ceretolo. Seventeen limestone game pieces. Museo Civico Archeologico
di Bologna. Photograph by the author (with permission).
Vitali discusses the omissions and uncertainties of Gozzadini and, following Zannoni, suggests that fragments of umbo in the pelvic region indicate
a shield was placed over the body and the game pieces were probably set
upon the shield (Vitali 1992, p. 382). [cf Santa Paolina di Filottrano, Tomb
2, on display in the National Museum of the Marche, Ancona, where gaming
pieces and dice also appear to have been placed on the body.]
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
The Arnoaldi Necropolis
The Arnoaldi site is one of several properties to the west of Bologna extensively excavated in the late C19th during what is described by Cristina
Marchesi as “Bologna’s enthusiastic archaeological season, which went from
1869, the year the Certosa necropolis was discovered, to the early 1900s”
(Marchesi in Morigi Govi ed. 2009, p, 82).
Various ancient burial sites in Bologna are named according to the owner
of the property at the time of excavation–Arnoaldi, Benacci, De Luca, etc.
While the naming convention may give the impression of several distinct
sites, the contiguous group form the vast necropolis of the Etruscan city of
Felsina. Graves are hierarchically arranged either side of an ancient road,
leading to the Tyrrhenean coast, which enters Felsina from the west.
The Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna has a large room (Room X)
showing material from the Felsina phase excavated during the “enthusiastic
season”, with stone monuments (stelae) and glass-and-wood display cases
preserving the inaugural state of the museum’s museological past.
Figure 15: Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Gallery. Room X. The
Felsinean Period. Photograph by the author (with permission).
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Figure 16: Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Gallery. Room X. The
Felsinean Period. Photograph by the author (with permission).
While material from the Arnoaldi necropolis is displayed in Room X,
along with grave goods from De Luca, La Certosa and other Felsinean sites,
some of the more interesting items are not on display at all.
Stead had noted several instances where game pieces could be organised
into “four groups distinguished by colour or design” (Stead 1967, p. 19).
While an examination of most of the examples cited has confirmed this
to be more or less the case, no other “complete set” has, thus far, been seen.
Although Ulrich Schädler notes the notion of a “complete set” of game pieces
may be a contemporary idea, the prevalence of “incomplete” sets might also
be understood if we consider Schädler’s suggestion that some game pieces
may be ritually discarded as part of the funerary rite “to remove the game
from secular use” in a way similar to the ritual deformation of weapons or
the breakage of ceramics (Schädler 2002, p. 368). While researching the
collection at Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna, the author was introduced to Roberto Macellari’s study of the Arnoaldi necropolis (Macellari
2002). Macellari identifies and corrects some errors in the Arnoaldi assemblages: several examples (Tombs 80, 128 and 132) are of particular interest
in relation to game pieces.
Arnoaldi 80
Macellari discusses the content of Tomb 80, discovered in March 1879, and
identifies some of the contradictions and confusion concerning the grave
goods. For example, Macellari notes that Brizio states the cremated remains were placed directly on the bottom of the pit, not in a cinerary urn; a
detail apparently omitted from Gozzadini’s original excavation note (Macellari 2002, v.1, p. 165). Macellari agrees with the C19th archaeologists that
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the amphora and olpe are correctly assigned, but there is some confusion
regarding a couple of kylixes: Brizio would assign two to this grave, while
Gozzadini’s report notes only one. Some of the dispersed contents were
later acquired by the Museo Civico di Bologna and assembled as Arnoaldi
80 following Brizio’s directions, including what Macellari calls ”doubtlessly
spurious” items (”senza dubbio spurii”), namely the St Valentin kantharos
from Tomb 60 and the owl skyphos from Tomb 58 (Macellari 2002, v.1, p.
165). Macellari asserts the six silver buckles are erroneous, and cannot be
the five bronze fibulae in Gozzadini’s note, and suggests the buckles belong
in Tomb 73 (Macellari 2002, v.1, p. 165).
Certosa-type fibulae in the tomb are dated late C6th–first half C5th BC
(Macellari 2002, v.1 p. 168 passim).
Macellari would also assign four bronze studs, three bone dice and twentyone glass game pieces to Tomb 80 (which Brizio placed in Tomb 78). The
game pieces fall clearly into four groups: six white, five blue-green, five
yellow and five blue. Despite assigning three dice to this tomb, Macellari
describes the dice as “not tracked” (“non rintracciati”) which seems to be a
euphemism for “lost” (Macellari 2002, v.1, p. 169).
Figure 17: Arnoaldi Tomb 80. 21 game pieces. In storage, Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Photograph: Laura Minarini
Arnoaldi 132
This tomb contains eighteen glass game pieces and three parallelepiped
dice. Macellari includes the original archaeological note, in which Gozzadini
records picking up from the floor of the tomb, three dice, six turquoise button pebbles, the same in white and the same again in turquoise with white
dots, along with a wheel of bone, four iron hooks, tableware and fragments
(Macellari 2002, vol. 1 p. 316).
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Each of the three parallelepiped dice is marked in the same distinctive
manner: both end faces are marked with a dot within three concentric
circles. Three of the remaining four faces show four, six and three, all marked
with a dot within two concentric circles. The final face is unmarked.
Figure 18: Arnoaldi Tomb 132. 18 game pieces and three parallelepiped dice. In
storage, Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Photograph: Laura Minarini.
Arnoaldi 128
Vitali discusses some confusion over the contents of tombs excavated on the
Arnoaldi property in 1885. For example, Tomb 128 contains both typically
masculine items (weapons) and typically feminine items (distaff; ointment
jar), despite being originally catalogued as a single burial. Vitali suggests
a number of possible scenarios, including a bisoma or double tomb, with
either simultaneous burials or sequential deposition; or two separate burials
subject to ancient tampering and “rimescolate” or “shuffling” (Vitali 2002,
pp. 115–116). Despite the confusion, the tomb is dated to second half C5th
BC.
Macellari (2002) has reconstructed the Arnoaldi graves, correcting some
omissions and re-assembling grave goods which were mis-assigned in the
1880s. In what is now identified as Arnoaldi 128 (originally Arnoaldi 1885/4),
Macellari places 24 glass gaming counters, comprised of six pieces in four
different colours: 6 x grey, 6 x black, 6 x white and 6 X patterned pieces.
There are also two parallelepiped dice.
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
Figure 19: Arnoaldi Tomb 128. 23 game pieces and two parallelepiped dice. In
storage, Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Photograph: Laura Minarini.
This set of game pieces, like the pieces excavated from the Welwyn Garden City grave, may comprise a complete set of gaming pieces for a fourplayer game. However, unlike the Welwyn Garden City grave, which is
prominently displayed in the British Museum, this exciting antecedent remains hidden in storage in the Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna.
A note on game boards
During the course of this research it became apparent that, unlike the Welwyn Garden City excavation in which fragments of what must have been a
game board—in the form of iron corner braces and a hinge, perhaps used
to effect a repair rather than facilitate a folding board (Stead 1967, pp. 34–
36)—no boards or fragments of boards are recorded from any Etruscan or
Gallic grave with game pieces. There are, however, numerous examples of
bronze “feet”, which are assumed to be from stools or tables (“mobile”). In
some cases traces of wood remain within the bronze feet, providing evidence
of the presence of legs or supports which have not been preserved.
For example, Arnoaldi tomb 127, a male inhumation burial dated to
the last quarter of the fifth century BC, contains sherds of various sympotic
vessels identified as two red figure kylixes and a red figure skyphos and Saint
Valentine type kantharos, together with three bone dice and three bronze
feet (Fig. 20). According to the text accompanying the display, the dice
would have “originally been placed on a small piece of wooden furniture of
which remain the bronze feet” (“originariamente appoggiati su un piccolo
mobile di legno di cui rimangono i piedi in bronzo”).
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Figure 20: Arnoaldi Tomb 127. Last quarter fifth century BC. Three bronze feet
(item 12). Display, Room XI, Case 1. Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna.
Photograph by the author (with permission).
Similarly, Arnoaldi Tomb C contains a bronze strigil with wooden handle, various ceramic fragments, along with nineteen game pieces, three parallelepiped dice and three bronze feet (Fig. 21). This material is exhibited
in Room X in the older section of Bologna’s Civic Museum of Archaeology
and appears as it would have been displayed soon after it was excavated by
Antonio Zannoni in 1884.
Figure 21: Arnoaldi Tomb C. Display, Room X, Case 8. Museo Civico Archeologico
di Bologna. Photograph by the author (with permission).
A later example can be found amongst the grave goods excavated from
Certosa tomb 66, dated to the early fourth century BC. While this excavation is significant because it shows the presence of Etruscan goods in the
Gallic period of Bologna’s history, it is of interest here for the bronze feet
which are included with a bronze bracelet (used for dating) and ring on a
phalange, a parallelepiped stone dice and two glass game pieces (Fig. 22).
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Strange Games: Some Iron Age examples. . .
Figure 22: Certosa Tomb 66. Display, Room XI, Case 2. Museo Civico Archeologico di Bologna. Photograph by the author (with permission).
While there is no evidence to suggest that the “mobile” or wooden stools
or small tables were inscribed with game boards, the continued absence of
game boards from Etruscan and Gallic excavations make it tempting to
speculate that the bronze feet may have supported game boards, or that the
game board may have been marked on the surface of the wooden stool or
table.
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