Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assessment of the Content and Process of Genetic Counseling: A Critical Review of Empirical Studies

  • Original Research
  • Published:
Journal of Genetic Counseling

Abstract

This article reviews studies that assessed the process and content of genetic counseling communication. A systematic search of the literature was undertaken of studies that audio- or videotaped genetic counseling sessions conducted by genetics health care providers and subjected them to communication analyses. A total of 18 studies (published in 34 articles) were identified that met the eligibility criteria. Studies show that providers speak more than clients, that a large proportion of communication is biomedical rather than psychosocial and that the teaching model of genetic counseling is widely implemented. Higher levels of counselor facilitation of understanding and empathic responses, lower levels of verbal dominance (ratio of counselor to client talk) and the provision of a summary letter of the consultation are associated with more positive client outcomes. Findings from these studies should be used as an evidence base for teaching and continuing education of genetic counseling providers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aalfs, C., Oort, F., de Haes, H., Leschot, N., & Smets, E. (2006). Counselor–counselee interaction in reproductive genetic counseling: Does a pregnancy in the counselee make a difference? Patient Education and Counseling, 60, 80–90. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2005.03.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Board of Genetic Counseling. (2008). www.abgc.net. Accessed on February 27, 2008.

  • Armstrong, D., Michie, S., & Marteau, T. M. (1998). Revealed identity: A study of the process of genetic counselling. Social Science in Medicine, 47, 1653–1658. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00241-X.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benkendorf, J., Prince, M., Rose, M., De Fina, A., & Hamilton, H. (2001). Does indirect speech promote nondirective genetic counseling? Results of a sociolinguistic investigation. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 106, 199–207. doi:10.1002/ajmg.10012.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt, B. A., Geller, G. A., Doksum, T., Larson, S. M., Roter, D. A., & Holtzman, N. A. (1998). Prenatal genetic testing: Content of discussions between obstetric providers and pregnant women. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 91, 648–655. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00011-8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biesecker, B. (2001). Goals of genetic counselling. Clinical Genetics, 60, 323–330. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0004.2001.600501.x.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biesecker, B., & Marteau, T. M. (1999). The future of genetic counselling: An international perspective. Nature Genetics, 22, 133–137. doi:10.1038/9641.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biesecker, B., & Peters, K. (2001). Process studies in genetic counseling: Peering into the Black Box. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 106, 191–198. doi:10.1002/ajmg.10004.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, D., Emery, J., Walter, F., Prevost, A., & Sutton, S. (2004). Psychological impact of genetic counselling for familial cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 96, 122–133.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brookes-Howell, L. (2006). Living without labels: The interactional management of diagnostic uncertainty in the genetic counseling clinic. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 3080–3091. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.08.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butow, P., Dunn, S., Tattersall, M., & Jones, Q. (1995). Computer based interaction analysis of the cancer consultation. British Journal of Cancer, 71, 1115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Butow, P., & Lobb, E. (2004). Analyzing the process and content of genetic counseling in familial breast cancer consultations. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 13, 403–424. doi:10.1023/B:JOGC.0000044201.73103.4f.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapple, A., Campion, P., & May, C. (1997). Clinical terminology: Anxiety and confusion amongst families undergoing genetic counseling. Patient Education and Counseling, 32, 81–91. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(97)00065-7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chapple, A., & May, C. (1996). Genetic knowledge and family relationships: Two case studies. Health & Social Care in the Community, 4, 166–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapple, A., May, C., & Campion, P. (1995). Parental guilt: The part played by the clinical geneticist. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 4, 179–191. doi:10.1007/BF01408408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, A., Parsons, E., & Williams, A. (1996). Outcomes and process in genetic counselling. Clinical Genetics, 50, 462–469.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duric, V., Butow, P., Sharpe, L., Lobb, E., Meiser, B., Barratt, A., et al. (2003). Reducing psychological distress in a genetic counseling consultation for breast cancer. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 12, 243–264. doi:10.1023/A:1023284219871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellington, L., Baty, B., McDonald, J., Venne, V., Musters, A., Roter, D., et al. (2006). Exploring genetic counseling communication patterns: The role of teaching and counseling approaches. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 15, 179–189. doi:10.1007/s10897-005-9011-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellington, L., Maxwel, A., Baty, B., Roter, D., Dudley, W., & Kinney, A. (2007). Genetic counselling communication with an African American BRCA1 kindred. Social Science and Medicine, 64, 724–734. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.09.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellington, L., Roter, D., Dudley, W., Baty, B., Upruch, R., Larson, S., et al. (2005). Communication analysis of BRCA1 genetic counselling. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 14, 377–386. doi:10.1007/s10897-005-3660-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, S., Fallowfield, L., & Lewis, S. (1996). Doctor–patient interactions in oncology. Social Science and Medicine, 42, 1511–1519. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(95)00265-0.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. (2003). Some observations on provider–patient communication research. Patient Education and Counseling, 50, 9–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J., & Dornan, M. (1988). Meta-analysis of satisfaction with medical care: Description of research domain and analysis of overall satisfaction. Social Science and Medicine, 27, 637–644. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(88)90012-3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J., Roter, D., & Katz, R. (1988). Meta-analysis of correlates of provider behaviour in medical encounters. Medical Care, 26, 657–675. doi:10.1097/00005650-198807000-00002.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hallowell, N., Green, J. M., Statham, H., Murton, F., & Richards, M. P. H. (1997a). Recall of numerical risk estimates and counselees’ perceptions of the importance of risk information following genetic counselling for breast and ovarian cancer. Psychology & Health, 2, 149–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallowell, N., & Murton, F. (1998). The value of written summaries of genetic consultations. Patient Education and Counseling, 35, 27–34. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(98)00080-9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hallowell, N., Murton, F., Statham, H., Green, J. M., & Richards, M. P. M. (1997b). Women's need for information before attending genetic counselling for familial breast or ovarian cancer: A questionnaire, interview and observational study. British Medical Journal, 314, 281–283.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamby Erby, L. (2005). Understanding the genetic counselling process: The use of simulated clients in examining the genetic counseling interaction. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamby, L. (2001). Discussions of personal meaning in pre-amniocentesis genetic counseling. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimler, A. (1997). An oral history of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 6, 315–336. doi:10.1023/A:1025680306348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsia, Y. E. (1979). The genetic counselor as information giver. In A. M. Capron, M. R. F. Lappé, T. M. Powledge, S. B. Twiss, & D. Bergsma (Eds.), Genetic counseling: Facts, values and norms, Vol. XV, No. 2 (pp. 169–186). New York: Alan R. Liss Vol. Birth Defects: Original Article Series.

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Genetics Society of Australasia. (2008). http://www.hgsa.com.au. Accessed on February 27, 2008).

  • Hunfeld, J. A. M., Leurs, A., de Jong, M., Oberstein, M. L., Tibben, A., Wladimiroff, J. W., et al. (1999). Prenatal consultation after a fetal anomaly scan: Videotaped exploration of physician's attitude and patients’ satisfaction. Prenatal Diagnosis, 19, 1043–1047. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0223(199911)19:11<1043::AID-PD697>3.0.CO;2-T.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kasparian, N., Wakefield, C., & Meiser, B. (2007). The assessment of outcomes in genetic counseling research: A review of the measurement scales used. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 16, 693–712. doi:10.1007/s10897-007-9111-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, P. (1977). Dealing with dilemma. Springer: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemel, Y. (2000). What happens during the prenatal genetic counseling session: exploratory study of genetic counseling. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S. (1979a). The genetic counseling session. In S. Kessler (Ed.), Genetic counseling: Psychological dimensions (pp. 1–3). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S. (1979b). The genetic counselor as psychotherapist. In A. M. Capron, M. Lappé, R. F. Murray, T. M. Powledge, S. B. Twiss, & D. Bergsma (Eds.), Genetic counseling: Facts, values and norms, Vol. Vol. XV, No. 2 (pp. 187–200). New York: Alan R. Liss Birth Defects: Original Article Series.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S. (1981). Psychological aspects of genetic counseling: Analysis of a transcript. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 8, 137–153. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320080204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S. (1992). Process issues in genetic counseling. In G. Evers-Kiebooms, J. P. Fryns, & J. J. Cassiman (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of genetic counseling (pp. 1–10). New York: Wiley–Liss.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S. (1999). Psychological aspects of genetic counseling. XI. Teaching and counseling. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 6, 287–295. doi:10.1023/A:1025676205440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S., & Jacopini, A. G. (1982a). Psychological aspects of genetic counseling. I. Qualitative analysis of a transcript of a genetic counseling session. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 39, 253–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, S., & Jacopini, A. G. (1982b). Psychological aspects of genetic counseling. II. Quantitative analysis of a transcript of a genetic counseling session. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 12, 421–435. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320120406.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Korf, B. (2005). Genetics in medical practice: the need for ultimate makeover. Genetics in Medicine, 7, 293–294. doi:10.1097/01.GIM.0000164551.44846.F6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lehtinen, E. (2005). Information, understanding and the benign order of everyday life in genetic counseling. Sociology of Health & Illness, 27, 575–601. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9566.2005.00457.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehtinen, E., & Kaariainen, H. (2005). Doctor's expertise and managing discrepant information from other sources in genetic counseling: A conversation analytic perspective. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 14, 435–451. doi:10.1007/s10897-005-6453-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ley, P. (1988). Communicating with patients: Improving communication satisfaction and compliance. Croom Helm: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liede, A., Kerzin-Storrar, L., & Craufurd, D. (2000). A method for analysing videotaped genetic counseling sessions. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 9, 117–136. doi:10.1023/A:1009459908884.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippman-Hand, A., & Fraser, F. C. (1979a). Genetic counseling: Parents’ responses to uncertainty. In C. Epstein, C. J. R. Curry, S. Packman, & S. Sherman (Eds.), Risk, communication, and decision making in genetic counseling, Vol. Vol. XV, No. 5C (pp. 325–339). New York: Alan R. Liss Birth defects: Original Article Series.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippman-Hand, A., & Fraser, F. C. (1979b). Genetic counseling: Provision and reception of information. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 9, 117–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E., & Meiser, B. (2004). Genetic counselling and prophylactic surgery in women from families with hereditary breast or ovarian cancer. Lancet, 363, 1841–1842. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16393-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E., Butow, P., Barratt, A., Meiser, B., & Tucker, K. (2005). Differences in individual approaches: Communication in the familial breast cancer consultation and the effect on patient outcomes. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 14, 43–53. doi:10.1007/s10897-005-1499-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E., Butow, P., Meiser, B., Barratt, A., Gaff, C., Young, M., et al. (2004). Communication and information-giving in high-risk breast cancer consultations: Influence on patient outcomes. British Journal of Cancer, 90(2), 321–327., 90, 321–327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E., Butow, P., Meiser, B., Barratt, A., Gaff, C., Young, M., et al. (2003). Women's preferences and consultants’ communication of risk in consultations about familial breast cancer: Impact on patient outcomes. Journal of Medical Genetics, 40, e56. doi:10.1136/jmg.40.5.e56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E., Butow, P., Meiser, B., Barratt, A., Tucker, K., Gaff, C., et al. (2002a). Tailoring communication in consultations with women from high-risk breast cancer families. British Journal of Cancer, 87, 502–508. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6600484.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, E. A., Butow, P. N., Meiser, B., Barratt, A., Gaff, C., Young, M. A., et al. (2002b). The influence of consultants' communication and information-giving behaviours on patient outcomes: A multi centre study of genetic counselling with women from high risk breast cancer families. European Journal of Human Genetics, 10, 312–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luborsky, L., Crits-Christoph, P., McLellan, A., Woody, G., Piper, W., Liberman, B., et al. (1986). Do therapists vary much in their success? Findings from four outcome studies. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 56, 501–512.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luborsky, L., McLellan, T., Woody, G., O'Brien, C., & Auerbach, A. (1985). Therapist success and its determinants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 602–611.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marteau, T. M., Plenicar, M., & Kidd, J. (1993). Obstetricians presenting amniocentesis to pregnant women: Practice observed. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 11, 3–10. doi:10.1080/02646839308403189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marteau, T. M., Slack, J., Kidd, J., & Shaw, R. W. (1992). Presenting a routine screening test in antenatal care: Practice observed. Public Health, 106, 131–141. doi:10.1016/S0033-3506(05)80390-7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy Veach, P., Bartels, D., & LeRoy, B. (2007). Coming full circle: A reciprocal-engagement model of genetic counseling practice. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 16, 713–728. doi:10.1007/s10897-007-9113-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser, B., & Halliday, J. (2002). What is the impact of genetic counseling in women at increased risk of developing hereditary breast cancer: A meta-analytic review. Social Science and Medicine, 54, 1463–1470. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00133-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendez, A., & Shymansky, J. (1984). Verbal behaviours and patterns exhibited by physicians during genetic counseling sessions. Patient Education and Counseling, 6, 165–168. doi:10.1016/0738-3991(84)90052-1.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michie, S., Axworthy, D., Weinmann, J., & Marteau, T. (1996). Genetic counselling: Predicting patient outcomes. Psychology & Health, 11, 797–809. doi:10.1080/08870449608400276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michie, S., Bron, F., & Bobrow, M. (1997a). Nondirectiveness in genetic counselling: An empirical study. American Journal of Human Genetics, 60, 40–47.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michie, S., French, D., Allanson, A., Bobrow, M., & Marteau, T. M. (1997b). Information recall in genetic counselling: A pilot study of its assessment. Patient Education and Counseling, 32, 93–100. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(97)00068-2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michie, S., Lester, K., Pinto, J., & Marteau, T. (2005). Communicating risk information in genetic counseling: An observational study. Health Education & Behavior, 32, 589–598. doi:10.1177/1090198105278562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michie, S., & Marteau, T. (1996). Genetic counselling: Some issues of theory and practice. In T. Marteau, & M. Richards (Eds.), The troubled helix: Social and psychological implications of the new human genetics (pp. 104–122). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Michie, S., McDonald, V., & Marteau, T. M. (1997c). Genetic counselling: Information given, recall and satisfaction. Patient Education and Counseling, 32, 101–106. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(97)00050-5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Doherty, K. (2006). Risk communication in genetic counseling: A discursive approach to probability. Theory & Psychology, 16, 225–256. doi:10.1177/0959354306062537.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, J. A., McAllister, C. L., & Rubinstein, W. S. (2001a). Qualitative cancer genetic counseling research, Part I: Ethnography in a cancer clinic. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 10, 133–150. doi:10.1023/A:1009491714527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, J. A., McAllister, C. L., & Rubinstein, W. S. (2001b). Qualitative cancer genetic counseling research, Part II: Findings from a exploratory ethnographic study in a cancer clinic. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 10, 151–168. doi:10.1023/A:1009443831365.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pieterse, A., van Dulmen, S., Ausems, M., & Bensing, J. (2006). Tailoring communication in cancer genetic counseling through individual video-supported feedback: A controlled pretest–post-test design. Patient Education and Counseling, 60, 326–335. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2005.06.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pieterse, A., van Dulmen, S., Ausems, M., Schoemaker, A., Beemer, F., & Bensing, J. (2005). Communication in cancer genetic counselling: Does it reflect counselees’ previsit needs and preferences? British Journal of Cancer, 92, 1671–1678. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6602570.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pieterse, A., van Dulmen, S., Beemer, F., Bensing, J., & Ausems, M. (2007). Cancer genetic counseling: Communucations and counselees' post-visit satisfaction, cognitions, anxiety and needs fulfillment. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 16, 85–96. doi:10.1007/s10897-006-9048-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pilnick, A., & Dingwall, R. (2001). Research directions in genetic counselling: A review of the literature. Patient Education and Counseling, 44, 95–105. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(00)00181-6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rapp, R. (1999). Testing women: Testing the Fetus: The social impact of amniocentesis in America. Routledge: New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resta, R., Biesecker, B., Bennett, R., Blum, S., Estabrooks Hahn, S., Strecker, M., et al. (2006). A new definition of genetic counseling: National Society of Genetic Counselors’ Task Force Report. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 15, 77–83. doi:10.1007/s10897-005-9014-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roter, D. (2003). Observations on methodological and measurement challenges in the assessment of communication during medical exchanges. Patient Education and Counseling, 50, 17–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roter, D., Ellington, L., Erby, L., Larson, S., & Dudley, W. (2006). The Genetic Counseling Video Project (GCVP): models of practice. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Seminars in Medical Genetics, 142, 209–220. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.30094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roter, D., & Hall, J. (1997). Patient–provider communication. In K. Glanz, F. Lewis, & B. Rimer (Eds.), Health behavior and health education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roter, D., Hall, J., & Katz, N. (1988). Patient–physician communication: A descriptive summary of the literature. Patient Education and Counseling, 12, 99. doi:10.1016/0738-3991(88)90057-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roter, D. L., Geller, G., Bernhardt, B. A., Larson, S. M., & Doksum, T. (1999). Effects of obstetrician gender on communication and patient satisfaction. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 5, 635–641. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(98)00542-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarangi, S. (2002). The language of likelihood in genetic counseling discourse. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 21, 7–31. doi:10.1177/0261927X02021001002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarangi, S., Bennert, K., Howell, L., Clarke, A., Harper, P., & Gray, J. (2004). Initiation of reflective frames in counseling for Huntington disease predictive testing. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 13, 135–155. doi:10.1023/B:JOGC.0000018823.60761.e0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarangi, S., & Clarke, A. (2002a). Constructing an account by contrasting in counseling for childhood genetic testing. Social Science & Medicine, 54, 295–308. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00029-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarangi, S., & Clarke, A. (2002b). Zones of expertise and the management of uncertainty in genetics risk communication. Research on Language and Social Interaction, 35, 139–171. doi:10.1207/S15327973RLSI3502_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiloh, S., Avdor, O., & Goodman, R. M. (1990). Satisfaction with genetic counselling: Dimensions and measurement. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 37, 522–529. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320370419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. A., Michie, S., Allanson, A., & Elwy, R. (2000). Certainty and uncertainty in genetic counselling: A qualitative case study. Psychology & Health, 15, 1–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teyber, E. (2000). Therapist variables. In C. Snyder, & R. Ingram (Eds.), Handbook of psychological change: Psychotherapy processes and practices for the 21st century. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Zuuren, F. (1997). The standard of neutrality during genetic counselling: An empirical investigation. Patient Education and Counseling, 32, 69–79. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(97)00051-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Zuuren, F. J., Van Schie, E. C. M., & Van Baaren, N. K. (1997). Uncertainty in the information provided during genetic counselling. Patient Education and Counseling, 32, 129–139. doi:10.1016/S0738-3991(97)00052-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Zwieten, M., Willems, D., Knegt, L., & Leschot, N. (2006). Communication with patients during prenatal testing procedure: An explorative qualitative study. Patient Education and Counseling, 63, 161–168. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2005.09.013.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C., Gonzalez, R., & Merajverc, S. (2004). Assessment of genetic testing and related counseling services: current research and future directions. Social Science and Medicine, 58, 1427–1442. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00337-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weil, J. (2003). Psychosocial genetic counseling in the post-nondirective era: A point of view. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 12, 199–211. doi:10.1023/A:1023234802124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitten, C., Thomas, J., & Nishiura, E. (1981). Sickle cell trait counseling—Evaluation of counselors and counselees. American Journal of Human Genetics, 33, 802–816.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable suggestions. Bettina Meiser is supported by a Career Development Award from The National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (ID 350989).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychosocial Research Group, Level 3, Dickinson Building, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia

    Bettina Meiser & Jennifer Irle

  2. Prince of Wales Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia

    Bettina Meiser

  3. Medical Psychology Unit, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Elizabeth Lobb

  4. WA Centre for Cancer & Palliative Care, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Elizabeth Lobb

  5. WA Centre for Cancer & Palliative Care, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Elizabeth Lobb

  6. Centre for Genetics Education, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, Sydney, NSW, Australia

    Kristine Barlow-Stewart

Authors
  1. Bettina Meiser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer Irle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Elizabeth Lobb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristine Barlow-Stewart
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bettina Meiser.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Meiser, B., Irle, J., Lobb, E. et al. Assessment of the Content and Process of Genetic Counseling: A Critical Review of Empirical Studies. J Genet Counsel 17, 434–451 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9173-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10897-008-9173-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation