Volume 4, Issue 4, April – 2019 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Implementing the Bricolage: Investigating with Varied

Methods
Dedy Setiawan
English Department - Politeknik Negeri Bandung, Indonesia

Abstract:-Bricolage is an emerging concept of research challenge to researchers which is not bound by rigid, orthodox
methodology which applies all appropriate techniques of methods developed outside the inquiry demands. In another
investigation into a research. This eclectic method is instance, Kincheloe (2004) states that bricolage sees research
intended to have a unified and comprehensive research methods actively rather than passively. This means that we
result. This paper discusses my experience in actively construct our research methods from the tools at hand
implementing the bricolage principle in the research that I rather than passively receiving the ‘correct’ universally
conducted on workplace English in Indonesia. The case applicable methodologies.
study with four sub-cases in my research has undoubtedly
been achieved with satisfying result thanks to the use of Hence, through use of bricolage, Kincheloe (2004) seeks to
bricolage. All the steps taken in conducting the research is comprehend the research context by using earlier experience
described and a number of research methods used and research methods that are suitable to that context.
together with their underlying principles is also
expounded. This article will be useful for those who are According to Denzin & Lincoln (2011) the researcher
undertaking research especially in the methodology part. conducting qualitative research may be seen as a ‘bricoleur’.
Further idea on the functional Inductive Data Reduction They designate that there are many kinds of bricoleurs:
(IDR) is also discussed. interpretive, narrative, theoretical, and political. Furthermore,
they affirm that the qualitative researcher who uses montage is
Keywords: Bricolage, Eclectic Method, IDR Analysis, similar to a quilt maker or a jazz improviser: the quilter
Comprehensive Research stitches, edits, and puts slices or reality together.

I. INTRODUCTION My study employs semi-structured interviews – part of an

ethnographic method as the main inquiry – together with
The Oxford dictionary describes bricolage as multi-research methods: textual analysis, inductive data
‘construction or creation from a diverse range of available reduction (IDR), survey research, hermeneutics,
things’. It is initially from a French word which existed in phenomenology and auto-ethnography. Thus, an elective
mid-twentieth century. As a French word, bricolage comes method – bricolage and being a ‘bricoleur’ – has been
from bricoleur which means someone who ‘does odd jobs and implemented in order to obtain the best possible outcome for
who undertakes repair’ (Oxford Dict, 2013). This is the study.
established by the English-French translator (Linguistics
2013) which explains ‘bricoleur’ as to mean: (in house) to do B. Mixed Methods
odd jobs, potter about; (with cars) tinker about; to knock up There is now a trend to incorporate the two methods -
(infml), and to cobble together. For my study, I take the quantitative and qualitative - in the so called ‘mixed methods’,
definition of bricolage as ‘put together what is available and but the mixed methods approach to research is an extension
around to produce a unified research result’. rather than a replacement for the quantitative and qualitative
approaches to research. The two research approaches will
A. Bricolage as a Method of Inquiry carry on to be useful and important. It is based on the principle
The research definitely applies the principle of bricolage that both methodologies share the same intention of assisting
in the collecting and processing of data. Steinberg (2012) in finding the answers to a set of research questions. Williams
asserts principle of bricolage as an eclectic method by which (2007) asserts that the goal for researchers incorporating the
an educational researcher conducts a study – attributing, in mixed methods approach is to draw from the strengths and to
particular, the earlier work of disciplines and traditions. minimise the weaknesses.
Steinberg (2012, p. 184) affirms that the eclectic method as
such as being: Williams (2007) argues that the quantitative method
 pragmatic and strategic, demanding self-consciousness offers an objective measure of reality, while the qualitative
and awareness of the context from the researcher. method allocates the researcher to explore and better
understand the complexity of a phenomenon. Additionally,
Furthermore, Verjans (2005) sees bricolage as a way of Denzin & Lincoln (2011) advises that qualitative researchers
life, while Tshabangu (2009) views the use of bricolage as of a study things in their natural settings.

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In addition, Denzin & Lincoln (2011) put forwards that B. Auto-Ethnography
all qualitative researchers are philosophers, in a universal Auto-ethnography is a research method that takes
sense: they are guided by highly abstract principles which advantage of the researcher’s own experiences as ethnographic
merge beliefs about ontology– What kind of being is a human data (Maréchal 2010; Southerton 2011). Furthermore, Ellis
being? What is the nature of reality?; epistemology – What is and Bochner (2011) propose that auto-ethnography is a
the relationship between inquirer and the known?; and process that derived from the ‘crisis of confidence’ stimulated
methodology – How do we know the world or gain its by postmodernism in the 1980s: it merges the characteristics
knowledge? of autobiography and ethnography. Ellis and Bochner (2011)
also state that in writing ethnography, the author describes
II. IMPACT OF CONSTRUCTIVISM ON THE STUDY about past experiences. The author is also permitted to reflect
on their own experience, to unite this with interviews as well
The psychological theory behind my research is as supported with descriptions such as photographs, journals
constructivism. The concept of ‘constructivism’, as established and recordings to help with recall.
by Piaget, is based on the belief that every human being is
furnished with a knowledge-building capacity. It is, as In my study I used my personal experience as an
described by Schunk (2008) ‘formed inside people and employee in some organisations where I could have access
learning happens through interactions’. This is reinforced by data resourced from observation, interview, materials and other
Glasersfeld (1990) who points out that the human knower can sources. My experience which helps reinforce the analysis for
obtain some knowledge of a truly existing world and can my thesis embracing my work with the Save the Children
implement this knowledge to modify it. foundation as and with the Australian-based Sagric and other
Indonesian local companies.
Problem-solving is often confronted by employees in
their workplaces and Billett (1996) spreads the view that ‘a C. Naturalism
constructivist view of learning emphasises problem-solving as Observation of first-hand experience is the key factor
a means to construct, organise, index and extend knowledge’. normally found in the definition above. This is because
Similarly, Kerka (2011) asserts that constructivism, as ethnography is placed within the approach of naturalism
contrasting to behaviourism, should trigger the theory of (Angrosino 2007; Kusenbach 2003; Pole & Morrison, 2003;
English for Academic Purposes; the latter simply advocates Sangasubana, 2011; Williams, 2007) and naturalism is dealt
knowledge for behavioural control and task completion by with the setting and location within which social action is
students. Constructivism is in accordance with qualitative formed and experienced.
research which emphasizes on the participants in the regular
everyday world (natural settings) (Croker 2009). Concerning the time taken to caarry out research with
naturalism approach, Sangasubana (2011) proposes that the
A. Ethnograph observation and the extent of the researcher’s participation with
Ethnography is defined by Pole and Morrison (2003, p. the subjects under investigation may require a relatively long
16) as an approach to social research based on the first-hand period of time. Johnson (2009), for example, expended three
experience of social action within a discrete location, in which years of data collection to research a language policy -
the objective is to collect data which will convey the associating micro-level educational practices with macro-level
subjective reality of the lived experience of those who inhabit language policies and discourse. Troman and Jeffrey (2007)
that location. spent three years carrying out a collaborative ethnographic
study of how occupants in five urban neighbourhoods in
Another definition by Silverman (1997) suggests that Hollywood perceive local problems, and how their daily
ethnography is defined as hybrid approach featured by two activities and social exchanges relate to those understandings.
demands on researchers: one observing a setting and gathering Quinlan (2008) spent several months conducting an
data; the other directly concerned in the setting under study, institutional ethnography study using ‘shadowing’, i.e., being
comprising the researchers, as themselves objects of inquiry. present with subjects for lengthy periods of time on a fixed
These two definitions are akin to that of Donan (1997), who basis, as the main method of observation for data collection.
advises that ethnographic research is a type of study which is
based on observation of human action, discourse, and self- Another characteristics which is commonly proposed by
perception, and is anticipated as an proper form of research some scholars regarding ethnography is in the application of
when experimental research is unfitting, and when exactitude is various methods of data collection as well as observation
not required. which comprises interview, site documents and other backup
sources especially meant for triangulation (Angrosino 2007;
Freebody 2003; Pole & Morrison 2003; Sangasubana 2011;
Williams 2007).

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D. Triangulation of knowledge that is attained by having experience as the
Triangulation is the usage of more than one approach in subject of the study, but fails to intricate further the differences
one study for the sake of enhancing confidence in the findings. between the two approaches.
Denzin (1989) further expounds four types of triangulation, From the research of Barnard, et al (1999) I have observed the
namely data triangulation, investigator triangulation, comparison of phenomenography and phenomenology.The
theoretical triangulation and methodological triangulation. most interesting difference between the two methods is that
while phenomenography puts emphasis on collective meaning,
For the purposes of triangulation, quantitative methods phenomenology focuses on individual experience. On this
containing statistical calculation from a survey tool, for basis, I categorise my research as being a phenomenological
example, are also allowed in ethnography as is advocated by study that pursues the knowledge of individuals concerning
Pole and Morrison (20030 their use of English in the workplaces.

A further example provided by Stake (2006) who In terms of theory building based about lived experiences,
suggests that triangulation can be used to gain assurance from a Goulding (2005) advocates that phenomenology has its own
diversity of sources. In a multi-case study, or a case study unique characteristics and philosophy. He contends that this is
consisting of many sub-cases, the researcher is confronted to both a beneficial and a beneficial approach to understanding
see what is shared across the cases; triangulation will help in how people undergo events or phenomena. Based on
making meaning across these cases. epistemology which perceives knowledge as a social
construction (and not a correspondence with ‘truth’) and a
In addition to interviews as the main source, I used theory that sees learners as active constructors , Pring (2000)
observation, document analysis and survey. Survey is used and Hopwood (2004) claim phenomenology presents itself as a
especially to substantiate the findings in the interview. Both the proper approach for investigating participants, inspecting them
interviews and survey allowed me to see how knowledge and as people who interpret the world and their experiences, and
experience were observed by the subjects under investigation. who construct personal understandings of themselves. This
In this sense, this research also involved a phenomenological suggests that phenomenology has its own unique
approach. characteristics and philosophy.

E. Phenomenology I conclude that a study may be considered as a

Katz and Csordas (2003) describe phonomenology as an phenomenology when it examines an individual’s experience
approach that pursues to reveal the foundation of a culture. and knowledge. Consequently, I consider that this study fits
This definition overlooks reference to experience and precisely with a phenomenological approach.
knowledge, which Lester (1999) advises is a basic foundation
of phenomenology. He declares that phenomenology is dealt III. CASE STUDY
with the study of experience from the individual standpoint,
‘bracketing’ taken-for-granted conventions and usual ways of From the point of view of the subjects under
identifying. In addition, he advocates that the drive of the investigation, the present study can be grouped as a ‘Case
phenomenological approach is to brighten the specific, to Study’. A case study, as suggested by Yin (1994) is an
recognize phenomena by way in which they are observed by empirical study that scrutinizes a contemporary phenomenon
the actors in a situation. Moreover, he states that within its real-life context, particularly when the limitations
epistemologically, phenomenological approaches are between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident’.
grounded on a paradigm of personal knowledge and
subjectivity that underline the importance of individual Taking an alternative position, Stake (2008) distinguishes
perspective and interpretation. three types of case study, namely, ‘intrinsic’, ‘instrumental’
and ‘collective’. Intrinsic case studies occur when a study is
F. Phenomenography conducted because one requests better understanding of a
At this juncture, I need to differentiate between particular case. Whilst, instrumental case studies occur when a
phenomenology and phenomenography. The latter is an particular case is investigated to provide insight into an issue
empirical research tradition that was intended to answer or refinement of theory. Finally, collective case studies happen
questions about thinking and learning, especially for when researchers study a number of cases jointly in order to
educational research. Ornek (2008) proposes that investigate the phenomena, population or general condition.
phenomenography is the empirical study of the diverse ways
in which people think of the world, whereas phenomenology Whether or not generalisation is probable from a
is ‘the study of phenomena’ associated with individual collective case study is a cause for some argument. Stake
perspectives. (1995) asserts that ‘grand generalizations’ can be drawn from a
case study, although he proposes that the real business of case
Ornek (2008) argues that phenomenology and study is ‘particularisation’, not ‘generalisation’ Stake (1995).
phenomenography are comparable in that they are both fields

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Yin (2003) emphasizes three aspects of the case study Because the nature of semi-structured interview is open to
inquiry: coping with the technically distinctive situation, modification, I can direct ‘spontaneous questions’ to
relying on multiple sources of evidence, and benefiting from participants particularly when I required clarification of, or
the prior development of theoretical propositions. All these further information about the matters concerned. I undertook a
characteristics are accommodated in this study as I have literal transcription of each of the 11 recordings.
developed a case study with four sub cases. This, according to
Yin (2003) permitted me to yield multiple findings using a IV. OBSERVATION
‘replication logic’ from which I can develop and build a theory
through analytical generalisation and comparison of cases. The visits and observations that I made for my research
have given me abundant knowledge on how English is used.
In conclusion, of the three typologies of case study There were some diverse conditions in each company;
suggested by Stake (1995) – ‘intrinsic’, ‘instrumental’ and however, I noted significant similarities in the atmosphere and
‘collective’ – I categorize my study as a ‘collective case study’ culture of the companies. Similarities were found in the
because it consists of four sub-cases which are instrumental in security level necessary in both the multinational and foreign
learning about the use of English in each of four workplaces. public companies. In each, I found that these companies have
In terms of the sites under investigation, the present study is their own system of security. For each, the outcome is the
classified as an ‘ethnographically informed cross-case analysis’ same: it is intended to protect the company and its employees
since four different sites, namely national private, national from outside intruders. The security in the multinational
public, multinational and foreign companies were observed and company was very tight. It was less tight in the foreign
compared. national company. By comparison, security in the state-owned
and private companies was not obvious at all.
A. Instrument Development
In this ethnographic study, a range of instruments was The corporate culture in each company was distinctive.
used for both the alumni workers and their supervisors. The The culture components that engaged me comprised the
main instrument was in the form of questions that I used in the following: the relationship and interaction among workers; the
semi-structured interview sessions. I obtained other supporting physical condition of the buildings with their maintenance; and
data obtained from observations, a survey, journal records and the worker’s performance. None of elements has a direct
personal notes of informal interviews that I preserved for the influence with the area of this study; indirectly, it may have an
period of the four visits. A questionnaire was made and influence in the use of English language in the workplace.
distributed, either in their workplaces or online, to 200
randomly chosen polytechnic graduates. A. Questionnaires Administered to Alumni Workers
I circulated questionnaires to the polytechnic alumni in
B. Semi-Structured Interviews the four companies when I visited. I also asked some other
Interviews are used to gather data because they can alumni to fill out the questionnaires online via the social
provide insights into people’s experiences, beliefs, network. The total number of returns was 36 – a small but
perceptions, and motivations at depth that is not probable with sufficient number for descriptive data analysis.
questionnaires (Richards, 2009). Semi-structured interviews
are used because the interviewer has a clear picture of the The content of the questionnaires was similar to the
topics that need to be covered but is prepared to allow the questions in the interview - it was meant to strengthen the
interviewer to develop unexpected directions. This view is findings of the qualitative analysis. Additional questions were
supported by Nunan (1993) who states that in a semi- added concerning the types of language skills required and the
structured interview, topics and issues rather than questions perceptions of importance of the language skills in their
determine the course of the interview. Open response workplaces.
questionnaire items, as ‘one of the techniques used to collect
qualitative data’ (Croker, 2009) are used as they can produce a The questionnaires and semi-structured interview
wide range of rich and often surprising responses (Browns, questions were pre-tested by similar respondents. In particular,
2009). the pre-test emphasized on ensuring that the items in the
questionnaire were obviously understood and to determine the
Questions for the semi-structured interviews were made estimated time taken to complete it.
in a form of open but guided questions that followed the
principles outlined above. The questions included issues and B. Collection of Data from the Company’s Documents and
items specifically geared towards answering the research Records
questions. I have told the high level of security at Minyak MNC and
Alatbesar FPC. In particular, the prohibition on the taking of
I conducted some limited piloting of the questions. This photographs in the offices of these companies meant that I was
piloting focused on the clarity of the language and instructions ot able to obtain copies of any instructions written in English.
for the semi-structured interviews. One of the workers interviewed clearly signed that the

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documents made by the company cannot be shown to anybody should be able to interpret whether a particular set of words
as they are confidential. spoken is an independent statement which should be treated as
a single sentence. I also considered both minor (short
I was suggested by the contact person at Alatbesar FPC expressions) and major sentence (complete sentences with a
that I should access their website, all of which is written in subject and predicate) types of sentences to be ‘single
English – a general type of English which is intended for sentences’ (Crystal, 2010).
information – to find out how English is used in the company. I
chose not to follow this suggestion because the English used in Transcription also needs adequate knowledge of
a website is unrelated to the English that would be used in a terminologies or words spoken for the interviewees did not
workplace. spell out every single word spoken. Failure to do this can result
in incomprehensible phrases or words which are meaningless.
However, I was able to collect some documents written in In the thirteen interviews, I found a few words which were not
English as a result of my email correspondence with the certain but then were interpreted according to context such as
company. I could make a judgment of English capability from the abbreviation of TSOC which were thought to be ‘Toyota
the questionnaire responses, for some comments in the Sales Operation’. For the uncertain words as such, I included
questionnaire responses were written in English. As I care the question mark besides the uncertain words or
only about the contents of the comments, I did not see the terminologies.
relation between the quality of English they produced and the
self assessement. I transcribed the original audio-tape recordings of the two
semi-structured interview responses, entering them in a column
V. DATA ANALYSIS headed ‘Comments’ in a MS Excel spread-sheet. I recorded
the identity of each respondent, using a code, in the adjacent
Regarding the areas of applied linguistics, Crocker left-hand column.
(2009) states two which are significant for my research:
language analysis and contexts, and experiences of language  Coding
use. Coding, which is found in the first column of each table
resulting from IDR, is made in such a way that it is easy for
As the former is usually dealt with second language me to separate the table when needed or sort the data
acquisition (SLA), this research falls in the second area – according to the grouping that I want to analyse.
contexts and experiences. As Croker (2009) points out, the The first two letters such as FC, SO, MN and PC stand for the
nature of qualitative analysis entails collecting textual data and types of company. FC is for Foreign Company, SO for State-
they are examined using interpretative analysis Owned Company, MN for Multinational and PC for Private
Company. They are all written with capital letters. Next to the
A. Inductive Data Reduction (IDR) Analysis two capital letters are two small letters that represent the
I applied a qualitative method of inductive data reduction interviewees. These are ‘wa’ and ‘wb’ (representing ‘workers’)
(abbreviated as IDR) to analyse the data that I gathered as a and ‘mn’ (representing the ‘manager’).
result of my field work in Indonesia. The data were collected
from 11 semi-structured interviews: four interviews with  Translation
individual managers and seven polytechnic alumni working The interviews were conducted in Indonesian so the
within the four companies under study. translation had to be performed. My experience as a freelance
One of the strengths of qualitative methodology is the rich data translator for an wide period of my life meant that it was easy
it possesses (Denzin, & Lincoln, 2011 ) and it has been for me to translate from Indonesian to English. The translation
confirmed in this research. The data are specially related to my that I performed was not a ‘word for word’ translation as
research topic. I did not include expressions of opinion, found in a computer- or Google/Bling-translation. Such
questions or statements from any conversation in the analysis translations may result in the loss of meaning of the translated
of data. words. My translation was a ‘translation of ideas’ comingfrom
statements expressed in sentences: the sense of the language is
B. Procedure of Inductive Data Reduction Analysis retained, thus preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences
In this section, I carry out a complete description of the (Bell 1991).
approach that I took to the IDR approach. The steps
undertaken (see Ling, 2012) were as follows:  Classification and Tabulation of Data
The first step of tabulation is putting all of the
 Transcription transcribed and translated interviews in a single column; Ling
The nature of spoken language is often full of unfinished (2012) advocates the use of a spread-sheet for this task,
sentences, ungrammatical statements, interjections and especially when the was only less than 20. I made five
intonation. This can be an indicator that the statement is columns in my initial table with the headings: code,
important, surprises or other expressions, the researcher comments, constructs, concepts, topic areas and organising

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themes. As part of this initial tabulation, I entered the analysis of documents; responses to a questionnaire. Data
comments according to the topics of the interview. from the semi-structured interviews were transcribed,
translated and tabulated and finally analysed using an
I deconstructed the comments into sentences: these inductive data reduction (IDR) approach which involved
represented individual statements regarding a particular topic. analysing, evaluating, synthesising and changing.
As the first part of the inductive data reduction (IDR), I
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