Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture
Section snippets
Introduction and rationale
While capture fisheries fall short of world demand, annual consumption of seafood has been rising, doubling in three decades (FAO, 2000). Obviously, just as we no longer depend on hunting, we can no longer depend solely on fishing. Even today, aquaculture provides over a quarter of the world's seafood supply, a figure the FAO expects will approach 50% by the year 2030 (Tidwell and Allen, 2001). With the diminishing availability of freshwater, most of this growth will take place in seawater.
Seaweed as a monoculture
The culture of organisms that are low in the food chain and that extract their nourishment from the sea involves relatively low input. It is therefore no surprise that the two predominant cultures in world mariculture are extractive-seaweed and filter-feeding shellfish FAO, 2000, Muller-Feuga, 2000, Troell et al., 2003. One seaweed, Laminaria japonica, cultured on long-line ropes in the coastal waters of China, constitutes over half of the world's aquatic plant production Chiang, 1984, Fei et
The evolution from polyculture, through fish–phytoplankton–bivalve to modern seaweed-based integrated intensive mariculture
Thanks to their manageability, land-based aquaculture systems offer much promise for sustainability in tropical, subtropical and temperate mariculture. Issues such as solid waste management, nutrient recycling and feed conversion enhancement are more easily and profitably addressed on an industrial scale on land than in open-water fish farms. Pond mariculture also allows the farmer to confront and mitigate the difficult issues of ecosystem degradation, mangrove degradation, exotic species
Seaweed-based integrated mariculture
A primary role of biofiltration in finfish/shrimp aquaculture is the treatment by uptake and conversion of toxic metabolites and pollutants. Bacterial biofilters oxidize ammonia to the much less toxic but equally polluting nitrate (e.g., Touchette and Burkholder, 2000), while microalgae photosynthetically convert the dissolved inorganic nutrients into particulate “nutrient packs” Kaiser et al., 1998, Troell and Norberg, 1998 that are still suspended in the water. Macroalgae (seaweed), in
Principles of seaweed biofilter design and operation
Ammonia is toxic to most commercial fish at concentrations above 100 μM (1.5 mg NH3–N l−1) Wajsbrot et al., 1991, Hagopian and Riley, 1998. To avoid toxicity, the capacity of any useful fishpond biofilter to remove TAN (total ammonia N, NH3+NH4) should therefore match the rate of TAN production. In seaweed-based integrated mariculture systems, TAN and the other excess nutrients from the fed finfish/shrimp culture are taken up by seaweed. Most systems studied used Ulva spp. and Gracilaria spp.,
SeaOr Marine Enterprises—a modern seaweed-based integrated farm
SeaOr Marine Enterprises, on the Israeli Mediterranean coast, 35 km north of Tel Aviv, is a modern intensive integrated mariculture farm. It is the culmination of much of the knowledge reviewed in the present article. The farm cultures marine fish (gilthead seabream), seaweed (Ulva and Gracilaria) and Japanese abalone (Fig. 1). This farm best utilizes the local advantages in climate and recycles the fish-excreted nutrients into seaweed biomass, which is fed on site to the abalone. The process
Economics
In the cost sheet of a modern intensive fish culture farm, the cost of fish feed proteins constitutes the largest item. However, three quarters of the proteins fed to the fish are excreted and eventually end up as dissolved ammonia. Algae recapture from the water and recycle ammonia, carbon dioxide, orthophosphate and micronutrients back into useful, protein-rich (>35% of dw) biomass Neori et al., 1991, Neori et al., 1996. As predicted by Ryther et al. in the 1970s (Huguenin, 1976), seaweed
Conclusions
A large body of good-quality research has been made worldwide, on different integrated aquaculture systems that use plants to take up waste nutrient and at the same time add to the income of the farms. Today's integrated sustainable mariculture technologies have developed from the traditional “all in one pond” polyculture and allow much higher intensification. R&D over three decades has brought the integrated land-based technology to a commercial reality. Through plant biofilters, integrated
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Israeli Ministry for National Infrastructures, the Israeli Ministry of Industry and Commerce and several grants from the European Union (A.N. and M.S.), the Ministry of Science and Technology of Israel, Binational Israeli–American Fund for R&D in Aquaculture (BARD), and the Negev-Arava R&D Network (A.N.); the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, AquaNet Network of Centres of Excellence for Aquaculture (T.C.; this paper is contribution no.
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