Journal of Heart-Centered Therapies, 2011, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 3-75
2011 Heart-Centered Therapies Association
Bringing Unconscious Choices to
Awareness: ‘Default Mode’, Body
Rhythms, and Hypnosis
David Hartman and Diane Zimberoff*
Abstract: Psychotherapy, and in particular hypnotherapy, affects the brain, as
well as the thoughts and beliefs processed by the brain, through the process of
neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. The brain is constantly adapting to new
information and new circumstances, e.g., modifying patterns of connection
between different parts of the brain and reorganizing neural pathways and
functions (neuroplasticity), as well as developing new neurons (neurogenesis).
We will be looking at very specific ways that hypnosis and hypnotherapy
influence these changes, and at some of the dysfunctional conditions that they
can be helpful in managing or repairing, such as addictions, ADHD, autism,
chronic pain, depression, and sleep disorders. First we begin with an overview
of the unconscious functions at work, day and night, in our physical,
emotional, and mental life: resting-state networks, especially the default mode
network; vagal nervous system and heart-rate variability; ultradian and
circadian rhythms; reward and stress networks; and the mirror neuron
network. The default mode network is vital to our sense of self and sense of
agency, moral sensitivity, organizing memory to reconstruct the past,
simulating the future such as inner rehearsal and daydreaming, and
imagination such as free association, stream of consciousness, and taking
other people’s perspective. We provide suggestions for “brain-friendly”
psychotherapy.
“[M]ost people do not know that most mental processes are autonomous.”1
“All mental states have correlates in the brain and any change in our attitudes,
beliefs, cognitive styles, preferences and modes of interaction must therefore be
accompanied by changes in the brain.”2
“Whether it is called symptom relief, differentiation, ego strength, or awareness, all
forms of therapy are targeting dissociated neural networks for integration.”3
A fundamental assertion of this article is that “hypnosis can
change the nervous system for the better.”4 Hypnosis affects the
brain, as well as the thoughts and beliefs processed by the brain,
through the process of neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. The
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* 3716 – 274th Ave SE Issaquah, WA 98029 800-326-4418
3
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brain is constantly adapting to new information and new
circumstances, e.g., modifying patterns of connection between
different parts of the brain and reorganizing neural pathways and
functions (neuroplasticity), as well as developing new neurons
(neurogenesis).
An example of modifying connections is using
psychotherapy to develop new neural pathways within the
corpus callosum, the major highway between the two
hemispheres of the brain, which is reduced through the effects of
trauma.5 Another example is found with patients who suffer
chronic fatigue syndrome, which has the symptoms of persistent
fatigue and a decrease in cortical gray matter volume. After
successful psychotherapy which addresses faulty thoughts and
beliefs about the condition, patients not only feel better but also
show a significant increase in gray matter volume localized in
the lateral prefrontal cortex (an area related to the speed of
cognitive processing).6 A depressed person usually suffers from
an overall lowering of energy and excessive rumination and selfcriticism. The rumination and negative self-talk is due to an
overactive prefrontal cortex, and that needs to be deactivated and
calmed, perhaps through hypnosis or meditation. Low affect
needs to be stimulated by activating the emotional limbic areas
of the brain.
Another brain structure, the hippocampus, offers examples
of both: modifying connections and developing new neurons.
Connectivity in the hippocampus is implicated in a number of
conditions related to deficits in mental processing, such as
autism, Alzheimer’s disease, drug addiction, and PTSD;
hypnosis and other forms of psychotherapy can help to
reestablish these interrupted connections. An example of
developing new neurons is the regeneration of the hippocampus
in the brain. The volume of the hippocampus is found to be as
much as 18% smaller in adult survivors of trauma, in individuals
presenting currently with severe and chronic PTSD, or with
borderline personality disorder.7 That damage results in
corruption of thought process and learning, particularly deficits
of encoding short-term into long-term memory.8 Through the
intervention of appropriate psychotherapy and social support, the
full volume of the hippocampus can be restored, and with it the
full functionality.9
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
5
Those structural brain changes are both between
hemispheres and within each hemisphere. There is some
evidence that in traumatic states, Broca’s area (a circuit of
interaction with other brain areas that plays a vital role in the
production of language, located in the left hemisphere) may be
inactive, whereas structures in the right hemisphere are highly
activated.10 These findings point to the experience in trauma of
overwhelming emotion without the mediating effect of cognitive
discernment and the ability to communicate verbally. People
who have suffered damage to the Broca’s area of the brain lose
their ability to speak although they can still understand what is
said to them. This provides a key to understanding the
importance in trauma resolution for the individual to speak,
formulating words and expressing themselves verbally. Doing so
rewires the brain’s damaged connections between and within
hemispheres. In fact, dysfunctional communication between
cortical and subcortial structures within each brain hemisphere
may be implicated in PTSD11, attachment disorders12, and
psychosomatic disorders.13 14
We will be looking at very specific ways that hypnosis and
hypnotherapy influence these changes, and at some of the
dysfunctional conditions that they can be helpful in managing or
repairing, such as addictions, ADHD, autism, chronic pain,
depression, and sleep disorders. First we begin with an overview
of the unconscious functions at work, day and night, in our
physical, emotional, and mental life.
The conscious mind and the unconscious share one body.
And both have a definite effect on it. There are many functions
of the body that are best managed by the unconscious: breathing,
monitoring and dispatching hormones, regulating the heart beat,
and a thousand others. One group of such functions is called
proprioception: the unconscious perception of movement and
spatial orientation arising from stimuli within the body itself.
The body is constantly monitoring its own state and making
adjustments to achieve optimal operation. This process is highly
individual, of course; what is assessed to be too much adrenaline
or too low blood sugar varies from one moment to the next, as
well as from one individual to the next.
Another category of these unconscious functions is
neuroception: the unconscious detection of environmental
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influences, without awareness. This requires a neural circuit that
evaluates risk in the environment from a variety of cues. Our
nervous system detects these cues and reacts by automatically
shifting us into different states. Something in the environment
assessed to be a threat or danger immediately activates the fight
or flight response of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic
nervous system. Of course, what one person’s unconscious
determines to be a threat may to another person be benign or
may even be desirable, depending on previous experience. Now
for some people, or in certain situations, the body’s response to
threat in the environment is the opposite of fight/flight; namely,
it is to freeze (withdraw, become despondent, feel stuck and
paralyzed) through activation of the parasympathetic branch of
the nervous system. When the unconscious neuroception
network assesses safety instead of danger, the body responds
with an activation of the “Social Nervous System,” a third
branch of the autonomic nervous system which allows letting
one’s guard down without the defense of freezing.
These are all cases of bottom-up processing: the body in its
primitive systems of maintenance and defense dictate to the
whole being a response in a given moment in time. This
primitive response aspect of a human being relies on both our
reptilian (parasympathetic capacity for freezing, or death
feigning) and mammalian (sympathetic capacity for fight or
flight) heritage. Here the body subjugates the brain and the mind.
But, being human, we also have the potential for top-down
processing which enables us to use our conscious cognitive
functions to restructure the body’s prescriptive conditioning even
though we may have experienced traumas or disruptions in our
normal development. We can recognize the old behavior patterns
as an adaptive survival strategy, perhaps no longer needed or
useful. Our brain can reorganize how our body feels. We can
deconstruct the old belief system and reinterpret it, see things in
a different way, and choose to recondition ourselves to a new set
of responses.
The body responds to beliefs held either consciously or
unconsciously, and in fact there is an intricate connection
between conscious mind, the unconscious mind, and the body.
This is obvious in the placebo and the nocebo effects.
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
7
The placebo effect is well-known. The mind’s expectations
largely determine the body’s experience when a drug is
administered. Some patients in a double-blind clinical trial who
are actually receiving a sugar-pill rather than the actual
medication experience relevant physiological effects as if they
had received the actual medication. This is a demonstration, of
course, of the miraculous power of the human mind and
imagination: mind over matter. Not so well known or studied is
the reverse placebo effect, however: patients’ expectations that
an actual medication will not work leads their body to cancel out
any physiological effect of the medication. In fact, research
documents that the mind can make a placebo “real” and render a
real drug useless.
A new study documents this nocebo effect.15 This particular
experiment involved causing pain to the legs of test subjects,
then adding a painkiller medication to an IV drip while assessing
the subjects’ pain levels. When the painkiller drug was present,
the test subjects were told about it, and just as expected their
pain scores significantly dropped. But when test subjects were
told the pain medication had been stopped, their pain levels
returned back to the original, non-medicated levels even though
the pain medication was secretly still being dripped into their
IVs. The expectation of poor or no results became a selffulfilling prophecy. “Doctors shouldn’t underestimate the
significant influence that patients’ negative expectations can
have on outcome,” says Professor Irene Tracey of the Centre for
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain at Oxford
University, who led the research. “For example, people with
chronic pain will often have seen many doctors and tried many
drugs that haven’t worked for them. They come to see the
clinician with all this negative experience, not expecting to
receive anything that will work for them. Doctors have almost
got to work on that first before any drug will have an effect on
their pain.” Subjects in the study were in an MRI scanner during
the experiment, and the researchers used brain imaging to
confirm the participants’ reports of pain relief. MRI scans
showed that the brain’s pain networks responded to different
extents according to their expectations at each stage, and
matching their reports of pain. This showed that they really did
physiologically experience different levels of pain when their
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expectations were changed, although the administration of pain
relief remained constant.
The miraculous power of the human mind and imagination is
here at work; and hypnosis and hypnotherapy are especially
well-suited to accessing the belief systems embedded in the
mind, and to modifying the expectations of a treatment outcome.
The placebo effect is actually the ability, indeed the
inclination, of the unconscious mind to accept suggestions and
employ the innate human resource of imagination. One of the
ways that the medical field can work together with others in
integrative medicine is to become acutely aware of the principles
of suggestion, how the unconscious mind works, and how what
medical professionals say affects patients. A dramatic example is
how the unconscious mind is processing all that happens in an
operating room under anesthetic. Because patients are “asleep”
does not mean they can’t hear or are oblivious to their
environment.
Anesthetized consciousness is ungrounded, but with
“remote” awareness and memory. Milton Erickson16 and David
Cheek17 discovered that anesthetized patients could perceive
conversation at some level of awareness. Research with
anesthetized surgery patients reported by Halfen18 and Bennett19
shows that a surprising amount of awareness does exist during
anesthesia, for bad but also for good. The beneficial effects of
positive suggestions to patients during anesthetized surgery have
been well-documented.20 Hypnosis has proven effective in
patient recall of events that occurred under anesthesia.21 The
famous neurosurgeon Penfield concluded that the mind is active
during anesthesia. He discovered that patients consistently
recalled exact details of incidents during surgery.
The question arises, what is the brain doing when engaged in
unconscious mental processing such as proprioception,
neuroception, anesthesia, placebo or nocebo?
“If we think in terms of symptomology, whether we are
talking about psychiatric symptoms, behavioral problems, or
even just physical health symptoms, most of the symptoms are
actually in the periphery. The nervous system is not solely a
brain independent of the body, but a brain–body nervous
system.”22
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
9
Recent analysis produced by neuroimaging technologies has
revealed something quite remarkable about this brain-body
nervous system: a great deal of meaningful activity is occurring
in the brain when a person is sitting back and doing nothing at
all.23 In fact, some brain regions are more engaged during rest
than during constrained cognitive activity, and the network of
these regions is referred to as the resting-state networks.
Actually the resting individual is engaged in some form of
mental process – of fantasy, imagination, daydreams,
reconstructing the past, or reverie – which is not “doing nothing
at all.” Yet these mental activities occur when the person is “at
rest,” leaving most people with the impression that most brain
areas stay pretty quiet until called on to carry out some specific
task.
It turns out that when your mind is at rest – when you are
daydreaming, contemplating (but not planning) tonight’s dinner,
asleep in bed, or anesthetized for surgery – dispersed brain areas
are busy communicating with each other behind-the-scenes. And
the energy consumed by this ever active messaging, known as
the brain’s default mode network, is about 20 times that used by
the brain when it responds consciously to an outside stimulus.
Another way to say this is that 60 to 80 percent of all energy
used by the brain occurs in circuits unrelated to any external
event.24
Several discreet resting-state networks have been identified.
At the highest hierarchical level, there are two anticorrelated
systems in charge of intrinsic and extrinsic processing,
respectively. They are the default mode network, a network of
regions that show high metabolic activity and blood flow at rest
but which deactivate during goal-directed cognition; and an
attention system which attends to a specific task at hand but
deactivates during periods of rest.25 Both the default mode
network and the attention system are associated with top-down
processing, a unique collaboration evident in creative problemsolving, insight, and mental simulations, with the default mode
network furnishing control of the attentional system.26 The
intrinsic default mode system appears to be partitioned in three
modules: generation of spontaneous thoughts; inner maintenance
and manipulation of information; and cognitive control and
switching activity. The extrinsic system is made of two distinct
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modules: one including primary somatosensory and auditory
areas and the dorsal attentional network, and the other
encompassing the visual areas.27
Regions of the brain termed resting-state networks mainly
include the primary sensory, motor, language, attention and
default-mode networks.28 Regions included in these networks
show a synchronized activity in absence of any specific
cognitive activity, that is, at rest, while they are known to be
engaged during sensory-, motor-, language- or attention-related
tasks, respectively. As for the default mode network, it includes
brain areas associated with multiple high-order functions that are
generally stimulus-independent and thus self-referential
processes. These can be related to organizing memory such as
reconstructing the past; simulating the future such as fantasy,
inner rehearsal and daydreaming; and imagination such as free
association, stream of consciousness, and taking other people’s
perspective.
A recent meta-analysis29 has identified various areas of the
brain as default mode network components, including the
posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), anterior cingulate cortex
(ACC), middle temporal gyrus, inferior parietal cortex, medial
prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and hippocampus.
The brain’s default network may be acting as a “sentinel”,
supporting a broad low-level focus of attention to monitor the
external environment for unexpected events and preparing ahead
of time to respond to the outside world when the need arises.30 31
This preparation can take various forms, for example retrieving
and organizing autobiographical memories, envisioning the
future, and empathetically conceiving the perspectives of others.
Among its jobs may be running life simulations, providing a
sense of self and maintaining crucial connections between brain
cells. In short, the default network is responsible for selfprojection—mentally transporting oneself into alternate times,
locations, or perspectives—as manifested in episodic memory,
navigation, prospection (i.e., anticipating future events), and
theory of mind (taking another’s perspective).32 Self-projection
into alternative pasts and futures actually serves a vitally
important function: survival. Default mode processes run
continuously in response to external and internal cues. Incoming
information activates associations and then expectations based
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
11
on past experiences. These associations are updated by new
information and are used to generate predictions about future
events. When incoming information is incongruent with
activated associations, default network processes generate
analogies that can be used to make new predictions. Thus, the
predictions continuously generated by the default network guide
people’s thoughts, behaviors, and perceptions.33 34
The strength of default mode network connectivity
contributes to important introspective psychological processes in
everyday social life, such as the intuitive understanding of other
people through inner representation of their emotional states.
Our empathy for others is carried as a “memory of the future,” a
neuronal cache, storing “a priori scripts,” which are recalled to
deal efficiently with upcoming environmental events.35 The
default mode network influences an automatic response of
empathy when we observe painful situations involving others.36
We have all had the experience of trying to remember some
specific fact, perhaps a name or vocabulary word that escapes
memory. Episodic memories like these can be retrieved by an
intentional search for the desired information, but if that mental
search fails, sometimes the fact may enter our consciousness
without any intention to retrieve it as if ‘out of the blue’. We can
infer that a gating mechanism exists which regulates incidental
retrieval activity, since such ‘out of the blue’ retrieval does not
occur every time we could be reminded of something. One
study37 found that failure to incidentally retrieve was selectively
associated with reduced activation of brain areas implicated in
the default mode network. This demonstrates that relative
deactivation of the brain’s default mode regions acts to gate
consciousness from currently irrelevant memories. When you
can’t remember where you left your keys, allow the ‘trying’ part
of your brain to deactivate and you may suddenly remember
where they are.
In one interesting experiment38, experienced Zen meditators
and non-meditator controls were asked to approximate the
meditation experience by focusing on the breath and allowing
thoughts to pass by without attachment to them, and a mental
discrimination task was randomly presented interrupting the
“meditation” (itself challenging given the intrusiveness of fMRI
neuroimaging equipment). All subjects showed a heightened
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prevalence of default mode mental activity during uninterrupted
periods, and a sudden deactivation of the default mode during
the task-oriented periods. However, meditators showed an ability
to voluntarily contain the automatic cascade of thoughts
triggered by the mental task, and to return more promptly to a
default mode of non-task mentation. For the meditators, activity
in the brain during default mode was lower than for nonmeditator controls, showing an ability to voluntarily regulate the
stream of thoughts occurring automatically in the absence of
goal-directed activity. Additionally, research results suggest that
the long-term practice of meditation may be associated with
functional changes in brain regions related to internalized
attention even when meditation is not being practiced.39
This unconscious processing includes the sense of personal
agency, i.e., the subjective experience of being the cause of our
own actions or attributing agency to the actions of others in a
real or imagined social situation. The sense of agency,
intentionality, and perspective taking, are closely allied to the
subjective experience of personal responsibility: without agency
we would not feel, or could not be held, responsible for our
actions. Our natural propensity to attribute cause to our and to
other people’s behavior allows us to make moment-to-moment
predictions on the intentions of others and to update them
continuously as our experience of others changes.
The sense of personal agency drives “moral emotions”
which might include guilt, anger, indignation, shame, regret,
gratitude, pride, embarrassment, envy, pity, contempt, awe, and
jealousy. Moral emotions are linked to the interest either of
society as a whole, or at least of other people. For example, guilt
is experienced when we recognize ourselves as the cause of
another person’s misfortune, whereas compassion is experienced
instead if we witness someone being accidentally hurt. We may
feel indignation when we get hurt by someone intentionally and
also if we witness someone else being hurt intentionally by a
third-party. One might feel embarrassed rather than indignant at
a faux pas in which a witty remark intended to provoke
amusement at a dinner party instead causes someone to feel
ridiculed. These reactions are generated automatically,
unconsciously, and can be called moral sensitivity, the
mechanism by which moral significance is automatically
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
13
attributed to ordinary events. And current brain research reveals
that “moral sensitivity is at the core of spontaneous, or ‘defaultstate’, mental activity.”40
Clearly, the functioning or dysfunction of the default mode
network affects an individual’s sense of agency and moral
sensitivity, and does so normally at an unconscious level.
We examine several ways in which the current research on
default mode networks has application to our clinical work in
healing. One is that some dysfunctions or malfunctions of an
individual’s body-mind can be explained as erroneous
functioning of his/her default mode network. Two is that
understanding the default mode network can help to identify and
explain, and potentially access, preconscious and unconscious
mental activity such as moodiness, prejudice, irrational fears, or
uncontrollable anger. And three is that some default mode
functions may be brought under conscious control and direction,
potentially through the interface of mental processes that allow
access to otherwise unconscious mentation, such as altered
states, meditation, or hypnotic trance states.
Default mode network’s access to preconscious and
unconscious mental activity
Interestingly, the default mode network activates during
retrieval of past events from memory but deactivates during
encoding of novel events into memory.41 Furthermore, studies
have found that these regions show less activity during encoding
for items that are later remembered than for those that are
forgotten.42 43 However, the brain’s hippocampus region –
normally associated with the default mode network44 – is
activated in both memory retrieval and encoding. An explanation
of this phenomenon is that retrieving memories is a mental
process oriented toward internal events, activating the
hippocampal regions coupled with the default mode network,
whereas laying down memories is a mental process oriented
toward external events, in which the activated hippocampus is
decoupled from the default mode network.
The distinction has potential relevance to the efficacy of
utilizing the hypnotic trance state for accessing traumatic
memories, and for encoding newly contextualized memories
following a therapeutic corrective emotional experience. The
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default mode network is activated in a traditional hypnotic trance
state, as it is in any state of mental and physical relaxation. This
explains the relative ease of access to memories in the hypnotic
trance. The default mode network deactivates during encoding of
external events into memory, but encoding newly contextualized
internal events into memory may in fact continue to engage the
hippocampal regions now decoupled from the default mode
network.
The hippocampus can, under certain conditions, generate
new growth, i.e., grow new neurons. One example is that taxicab
drivers, who navigate their way through unfamiliar streets
everyday, show measurable growth in their hippocampus.45 We
know that specific actions in the therapeutic experience
contribute to new hippocampal regeneration as well. New
measurable growth of neurons takes place in the hippocampus
when something is learned or remembered, two basic
components of effective therapy.
Bringing default mode functions under conscious control and
direction
David Abram46 relates his experience with traditional,
indigenous shamans in rural Asia, where he learned that their
commitment was primarily “to the earthly web of relationships”
in which the community is embedded. The shaman serves first
and foremost as an intermediary between the human and the
nonhuman; healing is secondary. His or her primary task is to
help maintain the balance between the human community and
the nonhuman environment. That function in our modern
societies can no longer be reserved for a select few specialists; it
is now up to all people to participate in this project. And most
people’s participation is accomplished unconsciously, through
the behind-the-scenes regulation by the default mode network
and neuroception, tides in body fluids and rhythms of body
energy, and the workings of the central nervous system through
established reward and stress pathways. But, like the shamans of
indigenous cultures, we too are capable of bringing to conscious
control these functions of maintaining balance between the
human community and the nonhuman environment. Ancestral
people consider awareness or mind not as something in their
head, but as something they themselves are inside of. The body
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
15
and conscious awareness are vehicles for the balancing of the
Great Forces of the World. Abram refers to this as a “turning
inside out.” Once we come to recognize the relationship between
our interiorized, psychological selves and the natural world
around us, ”we begin to turn inside-out, loosening the psyche
from its confinement within a strictly human sphere, freeing
sentience to return to the sensible world that contains us.
Intelligence is no longer ours alone but is a property of the earth;
we are in it, of it, immersed in its depths.”47
Daniel Siegel48 explains this way of looking at ourselves and
others as night vision. He likes to describe a walk he took on a
deserted Oregon beach late one night, with his flashlight turned
off. It took his eyes a while to pick out of the darkness the vague
outlines of rocks, the billions of stars, the serpentine border of
the sea and sand. Unlike the familiar reality that we see by the
light of day, the world revealed to us by this kind of night vision
can be disorienting, even surreal, possibly menacing, but often
magical. We feel our capacities for perception sharpened and
transformed as we become more attuned and attentive to the
smallest, most subtle, variations of shape and shadow. In some
way, by seeing less, we see more. Night vision is a metaphor for
the world of subtle processes that interpersonal neurobiology
opens up for our investigation. It awakens us to the everyday
marvels of the human brain--our ability to transcend the
boundaries of space and time, to “see” through the barrier of the
physical body into the invisible precincts of our own or another’s
mind.
And so we expand our awareness beyond the strictly
consciously knowable, beyond the strictly visible world, beyond
the strictly human sphere, bringing to awareness the natural
rhythmic patterns within our body-mind continuum that
otherwise operate as they were programmed to in early life
experience – which can too often be unresolved traumatic
experience. There exists a transitional phase between activation
of one pole of any of our body’s systems and the other pole,
when sympathetic activation is surrendering to parasympathetic,
midway as executive functioning is dimming to allow the default
mode to ascend to dominance. “The brain is always offering
undifferentiated possibilities in the moments between activations
and deactivations, before patterns are formed.”49 These are
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“empty moments” of undefined potential, “like a clearing in a
forest, an opening in which something new can be experienced.
It is not and is, as the Zen master would say.”50 In this opening,
brought to conscious awareness, we can make a choice of which
way to go. And one of the available choices is, of course, to
activate both at the same time. Doing so with the sympatheticparasympathetic branches allows for extraordinary states of
consciousness. A mindfulness meditative state or a hypnotic
trance state allows access to both the focused attention of
executive function and the relaxed openness of default mode.
Default mode functions may sometimes be brought under
conscious control and directed in a top-down manner.51 Evidence
from neuroscience52 further indicates two pathways that are
involved in accessing memories: a top-down search process
initiated in the left frontal cortex and a bottom-up spread of
activation from the medial temporal cortex. The bottom-up
spread of activation is outside of awareness or conscious
direction, is automatically and continuously generated, and is
what may be called mind-wandering or daydreaming. The topdown search process is generated through awareness and can be
consciously directed; it is observable in activation of the
orbitofrontal cortex, an area strategically located behind the eyes,
between the “higher,” thinking areas and the “lower,” emotional
areas. This region integrates and coordinates cognitive and
emotional processes, helping us regulate emotional arousal and
control our impulses. Sometimes called the “center of free will,”
it enables us to think before we act.
Mindfulness is the key to clients becoming more and more acutely aware of
internal sensorimotor reactions and in increasing their capacity for selfregulation. Mindfulness is a state of consciousness in which one’s awareness
is directed toward here-and-now internal experience, with the intention of
simply observing rather than changing this experience. Therefore, we can say
that mindfulness engages the cognitive faculties of the client in support of
sensorimotor processing, rather than allowing bottom-up trauma-related
processes to escalate and take control of information processing. To teach
mindfulness, the therapist asks questions that require mindfulness to answer,
such as, “What do you feel in your body? Where exactly do you experience
tension? What sensation do you feel in your legs right now? What happens in
the rest of your body when your hand makes a fist?” Questions such as these
force the client to come out of a dissociated state and future- or past-centered
ideation and experience the present moment through the body. Such questions
also encourage the client to step back from being embedded in the traumatic
experience and to report from the standpoint of an observing ego, an ego that
“has” an experience in the body rather than “is” that bodily experience.53
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
17
Early brain development is adversely affected by traumatic
experiences in the earliest relationships. Current research has
shown that the impaired connections between the right and left
hemispheres, that the fibre tract known as the corpus callosum,
i.e., the major highway between the two hemispheres, may be
reduced through the effects of trauma in those who have
experienced childhood sexual abuse. However, the brain can
develop new neural pathways in the brain, and in particular can
develop the corpus callosum.54 Further, we know that early
trauma and abuse damages the hippocampus, and again that it
can regenerate.
The vagal nerve system
Our nervous system has more than one defense strategy: a
mobilized fight/flight strategy (activated sympathetic response)
and an immobilization shutdown defense strategy (activated
parasympathetic response). The selection of whether we use a
mobilization or an immobilization strategy is not a voluntary
decision; it is made outside the realm of our conscious
awareness. Our nervous system is continuously evaluating risk in
the environment, making judgments, and setting up priorities for
responses to possible threats or nonthreatening elements. Our
brain is always in the mode of threat detection without
awareness, and that function is called neuroception.
According to the Polyvagal Theory55 two branches of the
vagus nerve serve different adaptive behavioral strategies. The
phylogenetically older dorsal vagal complex is a slow
responding unmyelinated vagus nerve that supports
immobilization in response to threat (e.g., the freezing response,
or death-feigning). The phylogenetically younger ventral vagal
complex originates in the nucleus ambiguus and is a fast-acting
myelinated vagus that functions as an active vagal brake. It can
rapidly mobilize or calm an individual via its fast-acting
inhibitory influence on the activity of the heart without
mobilizing the slower-acting sympathetic nervous system. This
branch of the vagus nerve is suggested to be involved in the
modulation of respiratory-related heart rate variability.56
The vagus nerve regulates the activation of the
parasympathetic nervous system as a counterbalance, or brake,
on the sympathetic nervous system, through communication with
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the heart. When the environment is appraised as being safe, the
defensive limbic structures are inhibited, enabling social
engagement and calm visceral states. In contrast, some
individuals experience a mismatch and the nervous system
appraises the environment as being dangerous, when it is safe.
This mismatch results in physiological states that support fight,
flight, or freeze behaviors, but not social engagement behaviors.
Functionally, the impact of the vagal brake produces a baseline
or resting heart rate substantially lower than the intrinsic rate of
the pacemaker. When the vagal brake is removed, heart rate can
approximate the intrinsic rate of the pacemaker without
recruiting sympathetic influences. When cardiac vagal tone via
the myelinated vagus is high, the vagus acts as a restraint or
brake limiting the rate the heart is beating. When vagal tone to
the pacemaker is low, there is little or no inhibition of the
pacemaker. The vagal brake provides a neural mechanism to
change visceral states by slowing or speeding heart rate.
Neurophysiologically, the influence of the vagal brake is reduced
or removed to support the metabolic requirements for
mobilization (e.g., fight/flight behaviors) and maintained or
increased to support social engagement behaviors.57
From a clinical perspective psychopathology would be either
the inability to inhibit defense systems in safe environments
(ranging in severity from hypervigilance to Anxiety Disorders to
PTSD) or the inability to activate defense systems in risk
environments (e.g., codependency, Williams Syndrome). Many
mental health or emotional disorders, such as autism, social
anxiety, PTSD, borderline personality disorder, depression and
schizophrenia, have an underlying state regulation disorder, an
underlying flatness of affective tone expressed on their faces, an
underlying lack of expressiveness in their voices and they also
tend to have higher heart rates and less vagal activity. Low vagal
tone correlates with higher emotional defensiveness, and with a
diminished ability to calm down following fear or anger arousal.
Treatment of these disorders involves creating safety to
allow the social engagement system to become activated.
Functionally, when the environment is perceived as safe, the
bodily state is regulated in an efficient manner to promote
growth and restoration (e.g., visceral homeostasis). This is done
through the vagal pathways to slow the heart, inhibit the
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19
fight/flight mechanisms of the sympathetic nervous system,
dampen the stress response system (e.g., cortisol), and reduce
inflammation by modulating immune reactions (e.g., cytokines).
That is, we cannot embark on the adventure of honestly
evaluating the efficacy of our habitual life patterns until we can
self-regulate to a calm state through applying the vagal brake to
our natural fight/flight response to stress.
Swinging or rocking in a head-to-toe direction stimulates the
vagal receptors involved in blood pressure regulation and helps
organize the whole vagal system. It is extremely calming for an
individual. Rocking on an exercise ball may provide an efficient
method of stimulating the sacral afferents of the parasympathetic
nervous system. These afferents transmit information to the
brainstem and increase parasympathetic tone.58 Sounds that
invite relaxation of defense and experience of safety include
music and the human voice which has a wide range of
modulation and expressiveness.
Heart Rate Variability
Basically the heart rate of a healthy person at rest is going up
and down with his/her breathing. If a person has a flat, unvarying
heart rate without this oscillation, he/she is at risk for serious
complications including death. Overactivation of the vagus,
applying too much parasympathetic influence too suddenly, can
lead to massive slowing of the heart rate and cessation of
breathing. This is analogous to the death feigning of an animal of
prey who has reached the point of terminating a fight/flight
response to threat.
Social engagement, deployment of emotion regulation
strategies, and perceived security in attachment relationship have
been shown to be accompanied by elevated output of the ventral
vagal complex (as indexed by heart rate variability). On the
contrary, social isolation has been related to attenuated heart rate
variability, thus supporting the key assumptions of the Polyvagal
Theory.
The autonomic nervous system responds to hypnosis with a
shift toward parasympathetic control, and that response can be
measured by heart rate variability.59 An identical response is
found with meditation.60 The autonomic status in hypnosis is
associated with a change towards parasympathetic activity, but
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not necessarily with deactivation of sympathetic activity.61 The
parasympathetic influence, as measured by heart rate variability,
corresponds precisely with an individual’s self-report of depth of
hypnotic trance and with other physiological phenomena (EEG,
pulse, blood pressure, breathing pattern). Further, there is a
positive correlation between hypnotic susceptibility and
autonomic responsiveness during hypnosis, with high
hypnotizable subjects showing a trend toward a greater increase
of vagal activation than do low hypnotizables.62
According to current research,63 high hypnotizables may be
emotionally hypersensitive to the perception of threat, and
therefore to be at greater risk of dysregulation of the sympathetic
nervous system. That is, they have higher baseline arousal and
slower recovery following stress than controls. Low
hypnotizable subjects, on the other hand, are hyposensitive to
emotional threats, and therefore are at greater risk of
dysregulation of the parasympathetic nervous system. They have
a lower baseline arousal level and faster recovery following
stress. Both high and low hypnotizables tend to reduce or block
from consciousness negative affectivity, as expressed in their
verbal reports, but not their physiological effects. This could
result in an incongruence between what they are aware of and
what their bodily responses reveal.64 Although results are not
conclusive, there is some evidence that patients diagnosed with
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are more likely to be
highly hypnotizable.65
Acupuncture reliably activates the sympathovagal system,
increasing connection between the pain, memory, and affective
regions within the default mode network, most notably the
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as measured by heart rate
variability.66
Ultradian and Circadian rhythms
It is well-established that the body, including mental
processing, has rhythmic alternating cycles of activity and rest.
This can be seen in sleep, with more active rapid eye movement
(REM) states alternating with deeper non-rapid eye movement
(NREM) states of restfulness. The body follows the same
rhythmic cycle during waking hours as well.67 There are a
number of different ultradian cycles that seem to recur at
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
21
approximately 90–120 minute intervals in human physiology.68
The basic rest–activity cycle includes phase changes in a wide
range of psychophysiological, motor, cognitive, and perceptual
functions, and more complex social behavior. These ultradian
changes in mood, cognition, and behavior are managed
unconsciously, but once brought to conscious awareness can be
intentionally influenced.
Rossi69 recognized this pattern as offering a periodic
“ultradian healing response” approximately every two hours
throughout the day, a kind of natural self-hypnosis state of
restful openness. When it is not respected, it leads to an
“ultradian stress syndrome” that offers resistance rather than
openness. The need for a restful interlude every 90 minutes or so
is evident in any classroom, business meeting, church service, or
study group. This cyclical pattern regulates the alternating
dominance of either the reception of information coming from
external sources (the environment and the body, neuroception),
or from internal sources of stimulation (the mind itself, selfreflection, proprioception). The rest phase manifests with a
passive state of mind, increased spontaneous imagination, and
contemplation; the active phase is characterized by reactivity to
environmental stimuli and goal-directed activity. In the rest
phase of ultradian rhythm, the brain’s right hemisphere is more
active and left nasal airflow is superior, while in the active phase
the brain’s left hemisphere is more active and right nasal airflow
is superior.70 Brought to conscious awareness, the difference
between nostrils in one’s breathing offers an opportunity to selfregulate the rest–activity cycle by deliberately breathing through
the nostril that will activate rest or activity.
The ultradian rhythm synchronizes with the longer 24-hour
circadian rhythm, creating unconscious patterns for individuals
over time. Some people are day people, whose energy levels
(and incidentally, susceptibility to hypnotic induction) peaks at
10 am and 2 pm. Night people are those whose energy levels and
hypnotic susceptibility peak at 1 pm and between 6 and 9 pm.71
“The circadian rhythm controlling our sleep-wake cycle has farreaching effects on every aspect of life, from behavior, attention,
and alertness, to hormone production, body temperature,
appetite, and digestion.”72 Sleep is obviously vital to all
mammals for restoration of energy that is used and depleted
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during the day. Another important benefit of sleep is the brain’s
opportunity to slow down its task-oriented cognitive processing
involving mostly fast-paced beta frequencies, and to operate at
the slower frequencies of theta and delta. In deep NREM sleep,
delta frequencies are dominant. Also, we need sleep to
consolidate memories. Memory consolidation of experiences
during the day is enhanced when the brain functions at theta
frequency, which is dominant during REM sleep and occurs in
the hippocampus.73 Theta brain waves are increased during
hypnosis as well, indicating why it is so fortuitous to correct old
beliefs, release old perseverating memories, and construct new
paradigms within the hypnotic trance.
Reward and Stress networks
Much of an individual’s behavior is determined through the
unconscious operation of the reward pathway. This pathway is a
convenient way to conceptualize the interconnected activities of
the areas in the brain where dopamine flows. Dopamine is
released when we experience pleasure, happiness and love, and
when life-enhancing needs such as food and sex are met. Upon
experiencing pleasure, dopamine is produced in the midbrain and
distributed to relevant parts of the brain: the nucleus accumbens
which activates motor functions, the amygdala which activates
emotion, and the prefrontal cortex which focuses attention. The
hypothalamus and pituitary regulate the level and duration of
pleasure so that when the body experiences satiation, it stops the
pleasure-seeking activity. When we have eaten enough food, or
drunk enough water, or experienced enough enjoyment, we reach
gratification and stop. An addict’s compulsive use of a substance
or behavior eventually compromises the reward pathway in two
ways: the body develops a tolerance for the dopamine produced
requiring ever higher dosages to achieve the feeling of pleasure,
and the self-regulation of satiation stops working.
The fear and stress pathway is made up of the
hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands, and controls how
the body responds to threat by releasing hormones and
neurotransmitters to initiate either the freeze response
(parasympathetic dominance) or the fight/flight response
(sympathetic dominance). When the experience of threat is
repeated or sustained, or is anticipated even when the threat no
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23
longer exists, then the fear pathway produces stress. This
network of autonomic nervous system and endocrine system in
constant activation produces anxiety, phobias, and posttraumatic
stress. However, this hyperactivation can be reduced through
pharmacological treatment or psychotherapy.74 The compulsive
activation of pleasure or fear “brings about a physiological
change in the biochemistry of the reward pathway and the stress
pathway. Hypnosis, by altering the neurochemistry, can help
shift the balance back to the healthy, natural homeostatic balance
that is wired in.”75
Mirror neuron network
The brain contains a network of neurons that respond
directly to the intentional actions and emotions of others. The
areas of my brain that would activate when I am serving a tennis
ball or feeling poignant sadness are activated when I observe you
serving a tennis ball or feeling poignant sadness. This
phenomenon is called embodied cognition by today’s
neuroscience, i.e., understanding others’ experience through my
own body response and somatic experience.76
There is evidence77 that mirror neurons play a role in a number
of interactive processes, including the intergenerational transfer
of trauma,78 the development of childhood depression as a result
of interacting with a depressed parent, and the continuation of an
abuse cycle — by producing non-conscious learning by
mirroring of the implicit affective state of the perpetrator as well
as that of the victim.
Hypnosis and bringing to awareness what has been
unconscious
Altered states of consciousness, such as hypnotic trance,
meditation, somnambulism, the stages of sleep, coma, and deep
anesthesia, provide a privileged way to study the relationships
between unconscious spontaneous brain activity and behavior.79
Analysis of all of these is beyond the scope of this article; we
will focus on hypnosis and mindfulness meditation.
“We know that the neuroscience of mindfulness and
hypnosis is parallel, causing changes in brain activation of the
same magnitude. Both feature cortical inhibition as revealed by
slowed EEG theta waves, and both show higher levels of activity
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in areas where theta is prominent, such as the frontal cortex and
especially the anterior cingulated cortex.”80
Hypnosis is a psychological technique that induces a
temporarily altered consciousness, the hypnotic state, that is
characterized by deep relaxation, focused attention, vivid
imagery and increased receptivity to suggestion.81 Functional
brain imaging82 and EEG83 differentiate the hypnotic state
physiologically from sleep, relaxed rest, and alert awareness.
Recent EEG research has found a distinctive time sequence for
the brain’s peak response to a stimulus after hypnotic induction;
the Event Related Potential is characteristically 300
milliseconds.84 This seems to be distinct to someone in a
hypnotic trance, because non-hypnotized individuals given the
same stimulus do not respond in the same time frame. When
people first go into hypnosis the left hemisphere is more active,
but as they go deeper the left hemisphere is inhibited,85 allowing
for more mental processing in the nonverbal, intuitive,
unconscious right hemisphere.
Hypnosis can
allow for intense absorption in both inner reverie and the environment, as well
as rewarding engagement in tasks analogous to ‘flow’ experiences
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). . . . recent data demonstrate a ‘default mode’
network of activation during self-referential rest, which is inhibited during
cognitive and perceptual tasks. It involves activity in the ventral portion of the
anterior cingulate gyrus and the posterior cingulate cortex. The ability to
inhibit this default mode network may also be a neural component of hypnotic
performance. These data linking hypnosis to modern genetic and
neuroimaging methods make it clear that hypnosis is not some arcane
idiosyncratic phenomenon, but rather a window into aspects of brain function
that have important implications for learning, development, stress response
and neural control over somatic processes.86
One part of the brain is particularly important as an interface
switch between executive function and default mode function,
and is referred to as the salience network.87 It is the anterior
cingulate cortex (ACC) which has been linked to monitoring task
performance and the modulation of arousal during cognitively
demanding tasks.88 In other words, this part of the brain decides
when to pay attention to the outside world (task-oriented) and
when to focus on the internal world (introspection). Both
hypnosis and mindfulness meditation states feature higher levels
of activity in areas where theta frequency brain waves are
prominent, especially the ACC89 90 and the hippocampus, source
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
25
of these theta rhythms.91 These altered states of consciousness,
then, offer unique access to the mind’s higher-order control of
awareness and focused attention. And it is precisely these
functions that are disrupted or debilitated in PTSD, ADHD,
Alzheimer’s disease, and others we will be discussing.
The ACC has been associated with monitoring for
competition among potential responses or processes. Such
conflict monitoring can signal the need for top-down cognitive
control, which facilitates the switching of attentional focus
between external/ internal focus, or task/ rest.92 Increased ACC
activity is followed by increased top-down control through
suppressing irrelevant
thoughts.93 An example of this is that hypnosis-induced
reduction of pain perception, a common function of hypnosis
that has been validated in many many studies, is related to an
increased functional modulation of the ACC.94 Hypnotic
suggestion provides the brain with a mechanism of intervening
in a bottom-up autonomous pain response by generating a topdown alternative experience.
Recently, positron emission tomography (PET) research has
confirmed the involvement of the anterior cingulate cortex
(ACC) in the production of hypnotic states.95 Hypnotic states are
characterized by a decrease in cortical arousal, described as the
brain’s attentional system, and a reduction in cross-modality
suppression (disinhibition). This accounts for the experience of
“flow” and insight so common in the hypnotic trance state.
At the same time, hypnosis also brings about an inhibition of
the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain
activated when we engage in deliberate conscious planning,
organizing, and regulating.96 Conscious everyday thinking is
quieted to make way for more creative, inspired, nonlinear
connections.
Clinical research documents that during the hypnotic state,
the capacity to access and influence functions beyond conscious
control is increased.97 For example, heart rate variability
provides a tool to evaluate the hypnotic state through acute
cardiac autonomic alterations.98 The heart rate variability may
even be useful in measuring the depth of hypnotic trance state.
Most states of consciousness carry an anticorrelation
between ‘rest’ and goal-directed behavior, between self- and
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external-awareness networks, between openness and focused
attention; the more awareness is focused on internal processing
(introspection, or self-awareness), the less it is available for
attention to sensory input (external awareness) and goal-directed
focus, and vice-versa. The hypnotic trance state is an exception;
parts of the brain that are normally activated with an opposite
on/off switch can be dissociated from each other to allow both to
activate at the same time. Under hypnosis, the anterior
cingulated cortex (ACC) is activated which narrows attention.
But, unlike in the waking state of narrowed attention, the
posterior attentional system which stimulates vigilance is
deactivated during hypnosis.99 Thus hypnosis creates a state of
dual effect: relaxation yet responsiveness.
In a similar dual effect, meditation has been shown through
fMRI and EEG studies to activate both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems simultaneously, creating a
calm state with enhanced alertness.100 There is, in addition,
increased activity in the reward pathway, particularly the
hippocampus and the amygdala during meditation,101 with
increased levels of dopamine,102 as there is under hypnosis.
However, there is a marked neural difference between hypnosis
and meditation. In hypnosis, a decrease occurs in functional
connectivity across the hemispheres, measured by EEG gamma
band coherence,103 while in meditation there is an increase in this
coherence between and within hemispheres.104 EEG coherence
normally means more of the brain is being used, with an
associated improvement in quality of attention. In the case of
hypnosis, the decrease in coherence indicates a dissociation, or
decoupling, of attention to more than one thing rather than a
decrease in mental processing. This dissociation allows one to
attend to apparently incongruous thoughts; for example a person
can experience being a child of seven in age regression and at the
same time experience being a healthy adult available to nurture
that child.
Typically in meditation, the frontal cortex becomes active,
while activity decreases in the posterior superior parietal lobe,
known as the Orientation Association Area (OAA). According to
SPECT imaging studies, the left OAA serves to create one’s
spatial sense of self, while the right side creates the physical
space in which that self exists.105 The OAA, for example, is
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27
related to a lack of sense of self in patients with
depersonalization disorder.106 In meditators, the OAA
demonstrates minimal activity levels during peak meditation
times, correlating with the subjective experience of blurred
distinction between the self and external reality, that is the
unitary nature of many transcendental states.
In a detailed examination of the process by which meditation
activates both the sympathetic (arousal) and parasympathetic
(quiescent) nervous systems simultaneously, studies have shown
that maximal stimulation of either component may induce a
“spillover” effect which, rather than inhibiting the activation of
the other, results in the simultaneous activation of both
systems.107 108 For example, the “hyperquiescent” state achieved
through meditation, experienced as oceanic bliss, may trigger the
activation of the arousal system, resulting in a “burst of energy.”
That may lead one to feel the profound excitation of kundalini
rising, or to be absorbed by an outside object, an experience of
boundarylessness and mystical merging that Buddhists refer to as
Appana samahdi. Conversely, the researchers found that a state
of “hyperarousal” interrupted by a parasympathetic breakthrough
may contribute to the trancelike condition achieved in many
religious and shamanic rituals, often resulting from the rhythmic
driving of drumming, chanting, dancing, etc.
Rarely both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are
stimulated maximally, resulting in the most intense forms of
mystical experience, near-death experience, and other types of
peak experience.109 This phenomenon is created utilizing
cognitive/emotional activity to drive the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems to maximal activation. This state can be
produced by mentally focusing on an object so intently that the
meditator’s absorption into the object of meditation results in a
total blocking of input to the OAA region of the brain,
obliterating the self/other dichotomy, and creating a sense of
union between the self and something outside the self (the object
of meditation, usually God or some aspect of divinity). Actually,
this occurs with a blocking of the left posterior superior parietal
lobe. Blocking of the right posterior superior parietal lobe results
in loss of the usual orientation to space and time, and thus in an
experience of orientation toward nothing, a sense of complete
nothingness, or union with the formless. With no information
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from the senses arriving, the left orientation area cannot find any
boundary between the self and the world. As a result, the brain
seems to have no choice but to perceive the self as endless and
intimately interwoven with everything. The right orientation
area, equally bereft of sensory data, defaults to a feeling of
infinite space. The meditators feel that they have touched
infinity. When both hemispheres are synchronized and both
halves of the OAA are non-activated, the meditator has the sense
of self merging with all that is, with the vast Absolute.110
Hypnosis and meditation states differ, yet each offers a
characteristic dual activation signature. “Hypnosis produces
state-like shifts in consciousness, yet participants still respond in
a goal-directed manner.”111 The brain’s default mode network
engages under hypnosis, yet brain structures associated with the
executive system that are often engaged in cognitive tasks in
everyday life involving focused attention, imagination,
absorption, and reduced analytical thought also come into play
during hypnosis.112 The hypnotic trance state allows access to
extraordinary mental functioning such as pre-experiencing future
possibilities through simulation or rehearsal; autonoetic
consciousness; a bias toward field (first-person) perspective
rather than observer (third-person) perspective during retrieval of
past events; and a facility for temporally extended self-awareness
which allows for expanded clarity of lifelong behavior patterns.
Brain networks activated in the default mode, and thus in
hypnosis, are involved with personal goal processing; they are
more activated when imaging future events that are relevant to
one’s personal goals than when imagining future events that are
unrelated to personal goals. Their activation is also detected
when individuals are engaged in self-referential processing, e.g.,
reflecting on their own personality traits. In other words, the
default mode is involved in coding and evaluating the selfrelevance of mental representations, and in putting those
representations in a broader personal context by relating them to
abstract autobiographical knowledge.113 These usually
unconscious mental operations are brought into conscious
awareness in the hypnotic state.
Under certain conditions, there is a parallel recruitment of
executive and default network regions of brain function, unlike
the way that these two brain systems usually work in opposition.
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29
“Mind wandering” may evoke a unique mental state that allows
these otherwise opposing networks to work in cooperation.114
Default network recruitment of brain resources often occurs
during the precise moments when the mind wanders away from
the task at hand. Individuals fluctuate in their explicit awareness
of the contents of their own thought, a phenomenon termed
meta-awareness or metaconsciousness. Recent research indicates
that task performance is more disrupted by unaware than by
aware mind wandering episodes. Brain recruitment in both
default and executive network regions was strongest when mind
wandering occurred in the absence of meta-awareness; mind
wandering is most disruptive to concurrent task performance
when it goes unnoticed. The condition that most supports this
unique mental state is one that contains “conflict within the
content of mind wandering itself, i.e., thoughts and memories
from the stream of consciousness that pertain to discrepancies
between one’s more general personal goals and the current state
of affairs. . . . the content of mind wandering is closely related to
current personal concerns and unresolved matters.”115 These are
precisely the conditions established in a typical hypnotherapy
session, setting up a cooperative sharing of mental processing
between the task-oriented executive and the introspective
default.
This parallel recruitment of brain resources in hypnosis is
vividly demonstrated in a study that compared what happens
when two competing processes are paired together.116 In the
Stroop test, a list of color words (red, green, blue, etc.) are
shown to subjects. In the control no-conflict situation, the word
red is colored in red ink, whereas in the conflict situation the
word red is presented in a different color, such as green or blue.
Subjects are asked to state the color of the letters and to
disregard the meaning of the word. Highly hypnotizable subjects
who are simply told to relax are wrong (state the color meaning
of the word) more often than controls. But subjects who were
directed through suggestion to disregard the meaning and just
see the color of the ink performed much better than the controls.
The hypnotic trance state created a functional dissociation
between conflict monitoring and cognitive control processes, but
“hypnosis combined with suggestion made it possible for people
to disregard the conflict altogether, and thus produce superior
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conflict resolution, to bring about a higher level of
performance.117“ 118
Another illustrative example of this parallel recruitment of
brain resources comes from pain research. Hypnosis can focus
attention on one mental experience dissociating attention away
from other experiences. In this way by distracting attention away
from pain sensation, hypnosis is useful in reducing pain. Current
research shows that hypnosis also can dissociate brain areas that
are responsible for sensing pain from those that are responsible
for evaluating pain.119
There is additional support for the perspective that this
unique mental state matches a hypnotic trance or meditative
state: the anterior medial prefrontal cortex, a prominent part of
the default mode network which has previously been implicated
in meta-awareness of one’s own internal mental contents,120 is
significantly more active when subjects are unaware of their own
mind wandering than when meta-awareness is present. This
finding suggests that subjects may be aware of the contents of
their consciousness, without being aware of the fact that they are
mind wandering. Again, this is an accurate description of the
hypnotic trance state. This dual activation pattern is also
reminiscent of the neural recruitment observed during creative
thinking, where executive regions and default network regions
are activated before solving problems with insight. 121 122 Also, a
similar parallel recruitment of executive and default regions has
been observed during naturalistic film viewing,123 which is
related to immersive simulation mental experience.124
Kirsch and his colleagues125 determined that highly
hypnotizable individuals experienced a decrease in the default
network after a hypnotic induction without increasing activity in
other cortical regions. These same decreases were not observed
in low hypnotizable participants. These decreases in the default
mode signify the presence of goal-directed activity within the
hypnotic trance state, meaning that hypnosis produces state-like
shifts in consciousness toward resting state non goal-directed
mental activity, yet participants still respond in a goal-directed
manner.126 The researchers interpret these data to indicate that
the induction of hypnosis “creates a distinctive and unique
pattern of brain activation in highly suggestible subjects.”127
Research data further shows that hypnotic depth ratings are
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
31
correlated with reduced activation in the default mode, so that
depth of trance actually increases goal-directed mental activity
within the context of the altered state.128
To summarize the unique state that hypnosis offers for
changing individuals’ behavior through changing and repairing
connectivity in the brain:
Hypnosis activates an array of neurological processes. During trance, the
usual conscious processing in the prefrontal cortex is deactivated and
separated from other processing. This releases the unconscious processes from
conscious direction and allows for a more free flow in creative, non-conscious
pathways. In hypnosis, attention is focused and absorbed, and often directed
inwardly, without the usual monitoring and vigilance that we usually turn to
the outside world when we are paying conscious attention to our surroundings.
When combined with suggestion, attention can be directed in a particular
direction, bypassing conscious limits, defenses, and problems, thus providing
an opportunity for something new to take place.129
Disturbed functioning of the default mode network occurs in
two ways: (1) diminished connectivity of the default mode
network during rest, interfering with the restorative tasks that
require default mode network activation; and (2) failure to
suppress default mode activity during executive functioning,
interfering with the ability to focus attention on a specific mental
processing task. For individuals challenged with these
conditions, increased connectivity with the hippocampal area
(part of the default mode network) results in a dysfunctional
failure to suppress default mode activity during executive
function tasks, which in turn has been linked to lapses in
attention and decreased performance. Healthy normal individuals
successfully suppress the default mode network during executive
functioning, allowing for focused attention to be maintained for
an extended period of time. Studies also have connected PTSD
symptomatology with diminished connectivity of the default
mode network during rest.
Recent research suggests that the reactivity of the
parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
reflected in heart rate variability could become part of a realtime, quantitative measure of hypnotic depth.130 The changes in
heart rate variability following hypnotic induction are due to
parasympathetic activation through the vagal nerve system. It is
not due to slower or deeper breathing, since the breathing rate
and depth remain similar before hypnotic induction and after.
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Also, heart rate remains unchanged under hypnosis, indicating
that hypnosis prevents the sympathetic autonomic responses
expected during stimulation.131
The importance of recognizing that hypnosis and
hypnotherapy increase vagal modulation, i.e., parasympathetic
activation, is that they reduce high blood pressure and other
cardiac risks, among other benefits.
Body-mind malfunctions and neural network misconnections
Brain-imaging studies have found altered connections
among brain cells in the default mode network regions of
patients with Alzheimer’s disease, depression, autism, PTSD,
attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome,
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and
even schizophrenia.132 133 Following is a brief summary of
physical and mental pathologies whose etiology is related to
neural malfunctions or misconnections.
Alcoholism
In alcoholics, brain scans reveal that the default mode
network areas of the brain are less synchronized than in
nonalcoholics,
indicative
of
compromised
functional
134
connectivity.
Further, greater efficiency of connections
correlates with longer sobriety in alcoholics. There is research
support for mindfulness meditation as a treatment for preventing
alcohol and substance abuse relapses;135 it helps patients feel
better by increasing dopamine levels, and activates the
discernment process in the prefrontal cortex.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s, in fact, may one day be characterized as a
disease of the default mode network. A projection of the brain
regions affected by Alzheimer’s fits neatly over a map of the
areas that make up the default mode network.136 And
perturbation of resting-state activity in particular within the
hippocampus is found in patients with Alzheimer’s disease
compared to controls.137 These findings, consistent with a less
dramatic process in normal aging, reflect a difficulty to switch
from a resting-state to a task-related mode of brain function,
which would mainly be due to a failure of default mode network
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
33
brain regions to show rapid and efficient synchronization in their
activity.138 Changes in resting-state activity or functional
connectivity within the default mode network may well be an
accurate and early marker of Alzheimer’s disease. Hippocampal
atrophy seems to induce episodic memory impairment, and this
dysfunction that may be at work in some of the other pathologies
mentioned above, including PTSD.
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) likely
represents a neurologic failure to properly deactivate the default
mode network in order to devote brain processing resources to a
goal-directed brain function. This has been demonstrated in
ADHD across tests of sustained attention, attentional control,
motor sequencing and control, inhibitory control, and time
perception.139 Studies of ADHD children and adults suggest
possible abnormalities within the brain’s default mode network
itself, namely grey matter volume reductions and decreased
cortical thickness in several specific default mode network sites
in the brain.140 141 142
Functioning properly, the hippocampus is a center for
comparing input with stored data, and, as such, a center to filter
out irrelevant (that is, distracting) stimuli that might lead to
maladaptive arousal responses.143 The hippocampal circuitry
locks onto only one set of inputs at a time, thereby facilitating
selective attention to only one set. However, when dysfunctional,
the hippocampus, rather than filtering out irrelevant stimuli,
becomes fixated on them. Studies of damage to the prefrontal
cortex and hippocampus reveal symptoms reminiscent of
ADHD, i.e., hyperactivity, distractibility, and a tendency toward
preoccupation with certain activities that verge on pathological
“undistractibility-distractibility”
reminiscent
of
ADHD
children’s tendency to become mesmerized by television or
video games.144
Yoga, which helps people learn to direct their attention to
breathing and somatic experience, has been applied successfully
to treat ADHD as well as Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,
depression, addictions, and sleep disorders.145
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Autism
Recent research has documented deviations from normal
default mode network activity in autism,146 failing to deactivate
when it should and activating when it shouldn’t. The autistic
individual’s default mode network does not deactivate during an
attempt to engage in a task, leading to distracting task-unrelated
thoughts such as rumination or daydreaming. However, autistic
individuals’ default mode network is also dysfunctional at rest,
failing to activate normally. This leads to a reduced capability
for self-referential thoughts or introspection. In one study of
adults with Asperger’s syndrome, many were unable to describe
their inner experience and thoughts when asked, although they
were of normal intelligence and could describe the immediate
physical environment.147 One node of the default mode network
is most prominently affected in autism: the anterior cingulate
cortex (ACC).148 The magnitude of disruption in connectivity is
inversely correlated with the severity of patients’ social and
communication deficits.149 This part of the brain is particularly
involved in self-awareness, and is, interestingly, one that is very
clearly affected by the induction of hypnosis.
In addition to activating when the brain is at rest, similarly
high activity of the default mode network is also seen when
people engage in tasks of a social, emotional or introspective
nature,150 151 the very tasks which are most difficult for
individuals with autism spectrum disorder.152 Autism spectrum
disorder comprises a range of developmental disorders, including
autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, and pervasive
developmental disorder not otherwise specified/ atypical autism.
These disorders are characterized by impairments in social
interaction and also by impairments in one or both of the
domains of communication and behavioral flexibility, as
manifested in a restricted and repetitive repertoire of behaviors
and interests (DSM-IV).
Recent research reveals that individuals with autism
spectrum disorder recall fewer specific past events (episodic
memory) than normal individuals, and that they imagine
significantly fewer possible future experiences (episodic future
thinking or prospection) than comparison individuals;
participants with autism spectrum disorder demonstrate impaired
episodic memory and episodic future thinking. Autonoetic
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
35
consciousness—a type of self-consciousness that involves
becoming aware of past, present, or future states of self—is
considered to be one of the key hallmarks both of episodic
memory and of episodic future thinking. In line with this finding,
participants with autism spectrum disorder are less likely than
comparison participants to report taking a field (first-person)
perspective and are more likely to report taking an observer
(third-person) perspective during retrieval of past events (but not
during simulation of future events).153 The default mode network
is considered to be instrumental in an individual’s experience of
autonoetic consciousness, and default mode disruption in autism,
as well as in individuals with depression or schizophrenia, show
reduced self-perspective and degree of autonoetic awareness.154
A related concomitant attribute is diminished temporally
extended self-awareness, i.e., awareness of one’s continuing
existence through time.
Recent research has explored the correlation of the deficit in
empathy in individuals with autism spectrum disorder with an
aberrant mirror neuron system.155 People with autism spectrum
disorder have trouble spontaneously imitating someone else,
whether they are attempting to imitate something emotional or
nonemotional. And fMRI studies document that when they are
attempting (unsuccessfully) to imitate another’s facial
expression, they show little or no activation in typical mirror
neuron areas of the brain.156 In other words, the impairment in
social orienting and attention is due to disrupted neural circuitry
of the mirror neuron system. This research has lead to the
development of a neurofeedback treatment to teach autistic
children to retrain mirror neurons to respond appropriately to
stimuli and integrate normally into wider circuits, which can
reduce social symptoms of autism.157
Bipolar Disorder
Default mode network connectivity is a marker for bipolar
disorder, distinguishing individuals diagnosed as bipolar from
controls as well as from schizophrenics.158 Studies using fMRI
have found abnormalities in the ventral medial prefrontal cortex
in bipolar disorder and abnormalities in the dorsal medial
prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia.159 Further, bipolar disorder
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subjects showing abnormal activation of the parietal cortex
correlated with mania symptom severity.
Medication alone is most often inadequate as a treatment:
“less than one-third of patients treated with lithium achieved
remission.”160 Psychotherapy in conjunction with medication has
been shown to be more effective, utilizing Gestalt Therapy161 and
cognitive behavioral therapy.162In one recent study, bipolar
patients who had undergone cognitive behavioral group therapy
presented fewer symptoms of mania, depression and anxiety, as
well as fewer and shorter mood change episodes; cognitive
behavioral group therapy sessions substantially contributed to
the improvement of depression symptoms.163
Borderline Personality Disorder
Several features of borderline personality disorder are related
to difficulties in regulating behavioral state and emotional
reactivity, functions regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
The sympathetic component of the autonomic nervous system,
which supports fight/flight behaviors, has been determined not to
be hyperaroused in those with borderline personality disorder.164
Rather, the parasympathetic component, which supports calm
visceral states and social engagement behaviors, has been
determined to be depressed, so that it is unable to effectively
apply the “brake” to the sympathetic activation.165 Also,
individuals with borderline personality disorder exhibit
anomalies in limbic structures implicated in emotion regulation,
such as smaller hippocampal and amygdala volumes.166 These
volume reductions, especially in the hippocampus, are thought to
be caused by the excessive stress that borderline personality
disorder patients experience.167 Borderline personality disorder
might be associated with difficulties in regulating the vagal
brake in social settings; in response to social stimuli, these
individuals rapidly shift from a calm state to a state of agitation.
A similar maladaptive vagal brake has been found in
individuals diagnosed with PTSD,168 and perpetrators of
violence.169
Psychotherapy is considered to be the primary treatment for
BPD.170 Recent research has shown that about half of the
symptoms of BPD are acute in nature (e.g., self-mutilation and
help-seeking suicide attempts) and half are temperamental in
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
37
nature (intense anger and profound fears of abandonment).171
According to this research, acute symptoms resolve relatively
rapidly, are specific to BPD, and often result in psychiatric
hospitalizations. In contrast, temperamental symptoms are
relatively slow to resolve, are not specific to BPD, and are
associated with ongoing psychosocial impairment. Therapy
includes forms of the cognitive behavioral approach, including
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT),172 and tends to be most
effective at reducing self-destructive acts.
Brain damage
Many patients surviving prolonged cardiac arrest or severe
motor vehicle accidents are left with severe brain damage,
leading to the presence of disorders of consciousness. Among
disorders of consciousness, coma is defined by unarousable
unresponsiveness; and vegetative state by preserved behavioral
sleep–wake cycles and reflexive but not purposeful behaviors;
minimally conscious patients, though unable to communicate,
show inconsistent non-reflexive behaviors, interpreted as signs
of awareness of self or environment; and the locked-in syndrome
describes patients who are awake and conscious but have no
means of producing speech, limb or facial movements.
Default network connectivity is decreased in severely braindamaged patients, in proportion to their degree of consciousness
impairment, ranging from healthy controls and locked-in
syndrome to minimally conscious, vegetative then coma
patients.173 The integrity of this resting-state connectivity pattern
in the default network differs in different pathological alterations
of consciousness. Connectivity is significantly stronger in
minimally conscious patients as compared with unconscious
patients.
Although the default mode network can still be identified in
unconscious patients, connectivity strength within default mode
network may be a reliable indicator of a patient’s level of
consciousness, differentiating unconscious patients such as those
in a coma or vegetative state from minimally conscious and
locked-in syndrome patients.
Other types of brain damage can result from stroke or
multiple sclerosis, for example. Results from one recent study
support the efficacy of self-hypnosis training for the
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management of chronic pain in persons with multiple
sclerosis.174 The types of issues that may need to be dealt with in
addition to pain management include coming to grips with the
reality of the current new situation, with the prognosis, with the
uncertainty of what the future holds, with changing relationships
due to the disability, with suicidal thoughts, with isolation.175
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Mention has already been made of the effectiveness of
psychotherapy which addresses faulty thoughts and beliefs about
the condition for patients who suffer chronic fatigue syndrome.
Patients not only feel better but also show a significant increase
in gray matter volume localized in the lateral prefrontal cortex.176
Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown to be useful to
patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia.177
Chronic pain
Chronic pain patients suffer from more than just pain;
depression and anxiety, sleep disturbances, and decision-making
abnormalities also significantly diminish their quality of life.178
Chronic pain harms cortical areas unrelated to pain, including the
functional connectivity of cortical regions known to be active at
rest, i.e., the components of the default mode network. In one
study,179 chronic back pain patients, despite performing a
cognitive task equally well as controls, displayed reduced
deactivation in several key default mode network regions,
indicating an underlying preoccupation with the internal somatic
experience. “In conclusion, these findings suggest that the brain
of a chronic pain patient is not simply a healthy brain processing
pain information, but rather is altered by the persistent pain in a
manner reminiscent of other neurological conditions associated
with cognitive impairments.”180
Depression
Patients with depression exhibit decreased connections
between areas of the default mode network and brain regions
involved with emotion, motivation, and reward processing,181
leading to the conclusion that “deficits in default mode network
connectivity with the caudate may be an early manifestation of
major depressive disorder.”182 The caudate is involved in the
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
39
processing of rewarding stimuli in healthy controls and is
therefore intricately involved in pleasure and motivation.
Major depressive disorder has been characterized by
excessive default-network activation and connectivity. These
hyperconnectivities are often interpreted as reflecting
rumination, where individuals perseverate on negative, selfreferential thoughts, i.e., repetitively and passively focus on
symptoms of distress and on the possible causes and
consequences of these symptoms.183 The research shows that
rumination and brooding occur during off-task periods when the
default network is activated, e.g. idle moments at work or nonengaged and unguided time periods at home. Consistent with
common experience, the relationship between ruminative
psychological processes and connectivity is mitigated by
engaging in a task, decreasing the time spent brooding.
Decreased activation of the default-mode network in patients
with major depressive disorder correlates with depression
severity and feelings of hopelessness.184
There is considerable evidence that depressive mood is
related to lower parasympathetic control of the heart, which of
course decreases ability to relax and increases cardiovascular
risk. When depressed individuals are alone they evidence lower
heart rate variability and higher negative affect, but not when
they are engaged in social interactions with a partner, family
members, or friends.185 The quality of the relationships is crucial
to this outcome, however; social interactions with strangers or
colleagues (potentially insecure interactions) are not
accompanied by higher heart rate variability in these individuals.
This affirms our commonsense expectation that social interaction
in an intimate relationship improves the emotional state of
someone afflicted with depressive mood. Furthermore, the
frequency of spousal interaction has been related with less
progression of heart disease among older men with elevated
depression scores. However, this effect only operates for
individuals with depression, not necessarily for non-depressed
individuals.186
Hypnotherapy combined with cognitive behavior therapy has
been shown to be effective in treating major depressive
disorder,187 including depression in children and adolescents.188
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Drug addiction
Research findings suggest that drug addicts (chronic heroin
users) have an abnormal functional organization of the default
mode network, including the hippocampus, resulting in
abnormally increased memory processing but diminished
cognitive control related to attention and self-monitoring.189
These findings may underlie the addict’s hypersensitivity toward
drug-related cues, and weakened strength of cognitive control,
i.e., compulsive patterns.190
The hippocampus is the main brain structure involved in
learning and memory, and thought to primarily contribute to the
acquisition, consolidation and expression of learning of the drugrelated cues that drive relapse to drug-seeking behaviors.191 192
The hippocampus is also, as has been clearly determined, a
prominent node within the default mode network.
There is growing evidence that hypnotically enhanced
treatment for addictions is effective,193 particularly by using the
addictive urge to locate and process underlying trauma.
Addiction uses three basic neuropathways in the brain. The
arousal neuropathway concerns arousal and intensity, the
numbing neuropathway produces a calming, sedative process
and the fantasy neuropathway provides escape through a trance
state.194
Early-onset pregnancy-induced hypertension
Pregnancy-induced hypertension is contributed to by both
sympathetic overactivity and vagal withdrawal, especially in
early-onset type, SVI is mainly due to vagal inhibition. One
recent study shows that hypnosis is effective in reducing blood
pressure in the short term but also in the middle and long
terms.195
Multiple Sclerosis
Relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis patients show a
consistent dysfunction of default mode network.196 197 The
dysfunction is more evident in cognitively impaired patients than
in those who are cognitively preserved. Cognitive impairment
occurs in up to 70% of multiple sclerosis patients, sometimes
starting early in the disease course.198 The degree of dysfunction
of default mode network appears to be a marker for severity of
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
41
symptoms for multiple sclerosis patients. In one study, hypnotic
imagery and posthypnotic suggestion were accompanied by
significantly improved control of pain, sitting balance, and
diplopia in a 30-year-old female with multiple sclerosis.199
Nicotine use
Nicotine is known to improve cognitive performance, in part
by improving attention. Nicotinic decreases activity in regions
within the default mode network, which then allows for more
mental processing resources to be available for being attentive to
task-orientation.200 Nicotine use that is so constant that it
interferes with the brain’s normal default mode processing may
deprive the individual of aspects of that processing, such as selfreferential introspection, organizing memory and imagination.
Hypnosis has been used successfully to assist in overcoming
addictive nicotine use. In a metaanalysis on 633 studies of
smoking cessation, with 48 studies in the hypnosis category,
encompassing a total sample of 6,020 participants, hypnosis
fared better than virtually any other comparison treatment (e.g.,
nicotine chewing gum, smoke aversion), achieving a success rate
of 36%.201
Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
People with OCD have a distinctive brain pattern: excessive
activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and the right caudate nucleus,
areas of the brain that, when activated, signal that something is
wrong. This overstimulation interferes with the ability to
accurately assess a situation and plan appropriately. Both
psychotherapy and medication can reduce activation in this area
of the brain, relieving the symptoms of perseverating thoughts
which lead to obsessive attempts to control anticipated
outcomes.202 Interestingly, positive emotionality has been shown
to be experienced when the orbitofrontal cortex is active during
resting conditions (introspection, mind wandering).203
In one recent study,204 OCD symptoms, depression, anxiety
and overall functioning improved robustly with brief intensive
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) treatment. In as little as four
weeks, there was significant activation of the dorsal anterior
cingulate cortex, a region involved in reappraisal and
suppression of negative emotions. Studies of cognitive
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behavioral therapy effects in obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD) are consistent in showing decreased metabolism in the
right caudate nucleus as symptoms decrease.205
Schizophrenia
There is increasing evidence of default mode network
dysfunction in schizophrenia, as well as brain structural changes
in schizophrenia in the territory of the default mode network. On
a task requiring identification or labeling of facial emotions,
schizophrenic patients show failure to deactivate the default
mode network in order to attend to the task. This failure is more
extensive than that seen during performance of working memory
tasks. Schizophrenics also show reductions of grey matter
volume in cortical regions that overlap with the same parts of the
default mode network.206
Seizures
The default mode network has been shown to be selectively
impaired during epileptic seizures associated with loss of
consciousness; decreased activity has been confirmed during
these three seizure types: complex partial, generalized tonicclonic, and absence seizures.207
Sleep deprivation
It is well known that one night of sleep deprivation
significantly disrupts cognitive task performance; it is now clear
that it also disrupts task-related deactivation of the default mode
network.208 Interestingly, perturbations in default mode activity
during wakefulness are observed in a number of disorders that
display co-occurring abnormalities of sleep, including
schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, anxiety disorders,
attention deficit disorder and Alzheimer’s disease. A
characteristic signature of the sleep-deprived brain may be the
dysregulation not only of on-task brain activity but also of offtask resting-state modes of brain activity, and may prevent the
ability to sustain attention and to maintain stable task
engagement, resulting in concentration lapses and slowed
response times. Such an outcome has obvious implications for
the disorders mentioned above, not to mention such conditions as
drowsy driving.209 It is safe to say that at least some aspects of
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
43
the default mode network are dependent on prior sleep for their
stability.
Perhaps this provides new evidence for the advice to “sleep
on it” in making an important decision. One prominent
hypothesis suggests that210
resting-state activity supports off-line processing of recently acquired
information within the context of preexisting knowledge.211 Such processing
may allow for the testing of unique memory associations, and by doing so
importantly make flexible predictions about the future.212 In this regard, the
role of sleep, and a lack thereof, becomes particularly relevant. For example, a
recent report has demonstrated that sleep not only strengthens individual item
memories but can actually facilitate the off-line building of distant relational
associations between them.213 Moreover, following initial practice on a
problem-solving task, a night of sleep significantly increases the ability to
gain insight of a hidden rule the following day.214 However, this next-day
insight was not evident immediately upon awaking. Instead, it emerged only
following substantial additional waking (re)engagement on the task.
Furthermore, participants who were sleep deprived and retested in the
deprivation state failed to gain such creative insight.
During sleep, the default mode network connectivity and
arousal level is at its lowest during deep non- rapid eye
movement (NREM), while during rapid eye movement (REM)
sleep it is as high as during wakefulness. This difference is true
for subsystems of the default network, but connectivity among
the core regions – the posterior cingulate cortex, rostral anterior
cingulate cortex, and inferior parietal lobule – remain consistent
across sleep states. The core network may serve to integrate
brain regions throughout the sleep cycle, while certain
subsystems perform functions specific to the level of arousal.215
Social Phobia
Default mode network connectivity is a marker for social
phobia.216 Default mode activation increases the ability to predict
another person’s behavior, taking his or her perspective.
Impairment in the default mode network in social phobia patients
may be relevant in the development of the feeling of wariness of
others’ judgment and may be related to the so-called self-focused
attention. Self-focused attention may prevent individuals from
observing external information that could disconfirm their fears
of being judged. Moreover, the abnormal modulation of activity
in the default mode network may reflect persistent rumination or
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anxiety-related thoughts that are not modulated by the switch
from rest to task.
Hypnosis is an effective and powerful intervention for most
types of stress and anxiety because hypnosis exploits the
intimate connection between mind and body, provides relief
through improved self-regulation, and also beneficially affects
cognition and the experience of self-mastery.217
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Sustained attention impairments in patients with traumatic
brain injury (TBI) are associated with an increase in default
mode network activation, and the degree of structural
disconnection within the default mode network correlates with
the level of sustained inability to attend. Abnormalities in default
mode network function are a sensitive marker of impairments of
attention and suggest that changes in connectivity within the
default mode network are central to the development of
attentional impairment after TBI.218
Trauma and PTSD
The integrity of the default mode network is compromised in
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).219 And the alteration of
brain function is not restricted to a years- or decades-long
process of deterioration. Physically healthy survivors of the
magnitude 8.0 earthquake in Wenchuan, China who experienced
severe emotional trauma, were assessed within 25 days after the
disaster. These trauma victims had a reduced temporal
synchronization within the default mode network of resting state
brain function.220 The increased regional activity and reduced
functional connectivity occurred in areas known to be important
for emotion processing.221 Atypical function in these areas has
been implicated in previous studies of patients with chronic
stress-related disorders.222
One recent study investigated relationships between default
mode network connectivity and the severity of PTSD symptoms
in a sample of subjects recently exposed to a traumatic event.223
Individuals with the most impaired connectivity developed the
most severe and most persistent PTSD symptoms, even
controlling for comorbid major depressive disorder. “The present
study certainly suggests that examination of connectivity
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
45
patterns of brain networks predict persistence of PTSD
symptoms or related post-traumatic symptomatology.”224
Altered default mode network connectivity in individuals
with PTSD has now been related to prolonged childhood
maltreatment, suggesting that early-life trauma may interfere
with the developmental trajectory of the default mode network
and its associated functions.225 Moreover, deficient default mode
network connectivity in adults with childhood maltreatmentrelated PTSD appears similar to patterns of default mode
network connectivity observed in healthy children aged 7 to 9
years.226 For example, default mode network connectivity
observed in women with severe chronic PTSD due to prolonged
maltreatment during childhood closely paralleled that observed
in children age 7 to 9 years.227
Healthy, normal default mode network structures begin to
develop by age 1, but integration and connectivity between the
default mode network nodes remains immature until about age 9
years. Impairment of the normal development of default mode
network in childhood has far-reaching consequences over the
lifespan. Typically, adults with chronic PTSD due to early-life
trauma exhibit remarkable deficiencies in functions reliant upon
self-referential processing such as emotion recognition and
emotional awareness. Alexithymia, the inability to appropriately
recognize one’s own emotions, is known to be widespread in
early-traumatized PTSD populations. It is also widely
acknowledged that repeated exposure to traumatic events can
affect one’s sense of an adaptive and agentive self. This is
illustrated by altered posttraumatic cognitions and disrupted selfreferential processing in patients with PTSD, arguably the most
severe example being dissociative symptoms that may include
depersonalization and identity disturbance. Neuroimaging
studies suggest that dissociative experiences involve brain
regions also implicated in the default mode network. Finally,
although results are conflicting, a number of studies also point
toward impoverished recollection of episodic events in survivors
of early-life trauma, particularly among those in whom PTSD
develops as a result of this exposure.228
PTSD patients who have suffered a trauma such as a serious
car accident show lower activity in processing empathy in social
situations. Following therapy, there is a greater activation in the
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left middle temporal gyrus, related to the experience of empathy,
and increased posterior cingulated gyrus activation, related to the
ability to forgive.229
The brain’s theta rhythm circuitry is involved in memory
retrieval, survival behavior, navigation including virtual reality
tracking, wellbeing, and the integration of emotion and
cognition. These processes are all implicated in the pathology
and treatment of PTSD. Hypnosis, which elevates the brain’s
theta rhythm, has been found effective in contributing to the
treatment of PTSD.230 Hypnosis has obvious affinities with the
symptoms of PTSD. In fact, trauma may be viewed as a
hypnotizing agent; Spiegel231 has articulated three clusters of
symptoms of PTSD in parallel with hypnosis as follows:
intrusive flashbacks and nightmares with hypnotic absorption;
dissociation with hypnotic dissociation; exaggerated response to
disturbing stimuli with hypnotic automaticity. Hypnosis can
enable the access of these symptoms and facilitate their
reprocessing. Hypnotherapy assists in memory revivification and
the integration of fragmented episodic memories, against a
background of anxiety reduction, empowerment and psychic
integration.232
Brain-friendly psychotherapy
“People come to therapy with a strong set of beliefs,
entrenched feelings, and redundant behavior patterns. One aspect
of the therapeutic process involves sensitively attuning to this
apparently filled mind and brain, and look for the spaces
between. Here we find the opportunities for movement and
change.”233
The most effective psychotherapy promotes brain
connectivity; in other words accessing different parts of the brain
at the same time and activating them so that they engage each
other in new and productive ways. We design our interventions
to trigger different structures and sense modalities in the brain,
whether visual or kinesthetic or verbal. We allow the client’s
unconscious to select what material to work on, and then allow
her to approach that material as directly as she is capable of.
Initially that may mean approaching it tangentially, talking about
a traumatic event, narrating the experience removed from
actually re-experiencing it. We know that eventually deep
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
47
trauma healing will come with facing the original traumatic
moment directly, experientially, and creating a corrective
experience to replace the original defensive behavior pattern.
There are parts of the brain, and therefore mental processing,
that you can’t reach with language. These areas of the brain, too,
must be accessed in order to simultaneously activate dissociated
networks in the brain - fear circuits, language circuits, reward
circuits, default mode - in ways that enable clients to reorganize
their neural connections.
The hypnotic trance provides fertile interconnection between
the cortex and the midbrain which is the requirement for repair
of the damage done to the brain’s hippocampus in childhood
abuse. Trauma resolution focuses on time-stamping experiences
to a discreet circumstance rather than a globally generalized reexperience of the original trauma. One of the core aspects of
treating PTSD is to route the original traumatic memory through
the brain’s hippocampus region to time-stamp it, which did not
occur during the original trauma.
Early trauma through abuse or neglect results in a significant
decrease in the volume of the hippocampus structure in the
midbrain. “The integrative failure that is characteristic of
traumatized individuals may also relate to structural brain
changes, notably in the hippocampus.”234 The hippocampus is a
brain structure instrumental in the synthesis of experiences,
providing a conscious structure, context and a time stamp to the
experience in the process of memory encoding, storage and
retrieval. Smaller hippocampal volumes have been reported in
female adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse.235 236 That
damage consists of a loss of neurons and synapses (a loss of up
to18%), and results in corruption of thought process and
learning, particularly deficits of encoding short-term into longterm memory.237
fMRI images reveal that when people are emotionally
distressed (anxious, angry, depressed), the most active sites in
the brain are circuitry converging on the amygdala, part of the
brain’s emotional center, and the right prefrontal cortex, a brain
region important for the hypervigilance typical of people under
stress.238 By contrast, when people are in positive moods (upbeat,
enthusiastic and energized) those sites are quiet, with the
heightened activity in the left prefrontal cortex.
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Activation of the amygdala is a manifestation of a
neurobiological fear reaction, and enhanced amygdala activation
is found in individuals with Borderline Personality Disorder239,
posttraumatic stress disorder240, and obsessive-compulsive
disorder241 242 during fMRI scanning of their provoked
symptoms. Further, the amygdala is activated by perseverative
thoughts and memories.243
These two systems (amygdala and hippocampus) represent
separable memory systems as well as separable processing
systems: the amygdala as a “hot” memory system, and the
hippocampus as a “cool” memory system. Psychopathology
develops when there are dissociations between these two
memory systems. Elevated cortisol levels - produced by fear,
anxiety and stress - for chronic periods are associated with
increased activity in anxiety-related brain regions, especially the
amygdala.244 Chronically elevated cortisol levels are also
damaging to hippocampal neurons.245
Under traumatic stress, emotional memories are encoded
without a significant contribution of context from the
hippocampal system. “This produces a pool of stimulus-bound
emotional memories that have been encoded without a coherent
event-specific spatiotemporal frame to organize them. This pool
is, essentially, a population of traumatic memory fragments.
Upon retrieval, traumatic memories cannot be experienced as a
memorial event with a beginning, end, and internal
spatiotemporal structure. Instead, each emotional memory is
experienced as fragmented, disorganized, and intrusive246”.247
The traumatic experiences, etched in procedural memory but
not converted into long-term memory, interfere with current
working memory. Past threats are perceived to be present threats,
suggested by intrusive thoughts, flashbacks, and hypervigilance.
Not only does PTSD obscure the ability to distinguish between
past and present, but the “repertoire of survival skills remains
confined to those skills that were acquired up to the time of the
trauma, and they lack the resilience to learn new strategies.”248
An aspect of this individual is frozen in the past, or perhaps more
accurately that frozen dissociated part of the person is carried
like deadweight in the ever-present – a “primitively organized
alternative self.”
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
49
Fortunately, however, the hippocampus is a unique region of
the human brain in that it can replicate new neurons as well as
new synapses. Treatment of PTSD and resolution of early
childhood trauma can reverse the damage to the hippocampus,
and there is evidence that the hippocampal volume actually
increases along with a decrease of PTSD symptoms and
significant improvements in verbal declarative memory.249 250
The age regression capability within hypnotherapy is an
ideal means of access to mend the damage to the hippocampus,
allowing the brain to return to the origins of the traumatic loss of
neurons and synapses, and “rewire” the processing of experience
and laying down of memory. Some of the relevant factors that
apply to the state of hypnosis (as well as meditative states) are a
proclivity to dissociation, tolerance of ambiguity, experiencing
states of nonordinary reality, boundarylessness, merging, and
fluid ego boundaries.251 Further, the state of hypnosis is known
to promote a state of being deeply engrossed in imaginative
activities, to produce vivid imagery, and to engage in “holistic
information-processing styles.”252 The panoramic bird’s-eye
view common in the state of hypnosis, or meditation, activates
the brain’s lateral network circuits, associated with mindful,
open, spacious awareness. Activating these lateral networks
contributes to steadiness of mind, the capacity for deep
concentration, and resilience.253
Theta frequency brain waves are dominant with unconscious
mental processing, and the source of these theta rhythms is the
hippocampus.254 The theta is especially pronounced during rapid
eye movement (REM), such as during dreaming or hypnosis. A
person can emerge into conscious thinking (beta brain waves)
from unconsciousness (theta) either rapidly or more gradually.
When the transition occurs abruptly, little of the experience can
be brought back to be accessible to the conscious mind.
However, when that same transition occurs more gradually, more
of the theta-level experience can be accessed consciously. And
the difference within the brain is that gradual transition allows
alpha brain wave patterns to participate in the crossover. Alpha
waves are associated with right brain processing, aesthetics,
intuition, sensuality. So the hypnotic trance state allows us to
experience with a theta rhythm, and yet access the material with
an alpha rhythm. Theta rhythms originate in the hippocampus,
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important for “time-stamping” memories, which must then be
forwarded to the prefrontal cortex to be processed in conscious
awareness utilizing alpha and beta waves.
Cozolino255 has a number of suggestions for how to facilitate
neural integration in psychotherapy that are solidly grounded in
neurobiology. He proposes that neural growth and integration in
psychotherapy may be enhanced by:
1. The establishment of a safe and trusting relationship.
2. Gaining new information and experiences across the
domains of cognition, emotion, sensation, and behavior.
3. The simultaneous or alternating activation of neural
networks that are inadequately integrated or dissociated.
4. Moderate levels of stress or emotional arousal
alternating with periods of calm and safety.
5. The integration of conceptual knowledge with emotional
and bodily experience through narratives that are coconstructed with the therapist.
Following is a brief summary of the guidelines outlined in a
2006 article256 by the current authors for differential approaches
to treatment of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
dysfunction. While accessing the hyperarousal or hypoarousal
response, we must facilitate the person to stay present, feel safe,
communicate their experience, and feel empowered. Following
are some suggested guidelines for treatment of trauma, complex
trauma, DESNOS, and shock.
1. Approach trauma-related material gradually to avoid
intensification of the affects and physiologic states related to
the trauma. With the advent of distinguishing between
trauma and complex trauma, or PTSD and complex PTSD,
we now know that certain prerequisites must be in place for
the client before proceeding to confront the trauma directly,
namely
the capacity of our patients to modulate their affective arousal: whether
they are able to be emotionally upset without hurting themselves,
becoming aggressive, or dissociating. As long as they cannot do this,
addressing the trauma is likely to lead to negative therapeutic outcomes.
Similarly, as long as they dissociate when they feel upset they will be
unable to take charge of their lives and will be unable to ‘process’
traumatic experiences.257
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
51
2. Cultivate an acute awareness of inner body sensations
(bodily feelings of a distinctly physical character, such as
trembling lips, heaviness in the chest, twitching in the hands,
clamminess in the feet, tightness in the throat, tension in the
buttocks, pounding heart, numbness in the extremities,
tingling in the right arm, shallow breathing, or vibrating
sensations in the solar plexus area, etc.).
The therapist asks questions that require awareness
(mindfulness) to answer, such as, “What do you feel in your
body? Where in your body do you experience that? What
happens in the rest of your body when your hand makes a
fist?” This focusing is especially important when the client is
accessing traumatic memories so that he/she can experience
the content of that moment consciously embodied. Questions
such as these encourage the client to come out of a
dissociated state, and future- or past-centered ideation, and
be really present in the body, experienced from the
perspective of an observing ego whose intention is simply
observing rather than controlling or changing the experience,
or reacting to it.
3.
Access enough traumatic material to process but not so
much as to dissociate. The therapist must “hold” the client’s
arousal within the optimal limits, while encouraging the
accessing, exploring, and expressing of the trauma memory.
When arousal reaches either the upper or lower limit, ask the
client to temporarily suspend attending to her feelings and
thoughts and instead focus on observing the physical
sensations and movements in detail until these sensations
settle and the movements complete themselves.
Redirect the person’s attention by asking him/her to
refocus as well as in other ways. That may be with a touch or
specific eye contact, a sip of water or inquiring about level
of comfort. In addition to interrupting the dysfunctional
sequence, such attending to the personal comfort and safety
of the client is nurturing and elicits their own social
engagement activation. This process is one of titrating the
traumatic pattern, alternating between small pieces of the
traumatic material and one of the client’s resources,
discharging the activation in the nervous system that
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emerges as the person slowly works through the traumatic
event.
4.
Interrupt a client’s unconscious, autonomic patterns
somatically. One of the most common patterns is some form
of “bracing”, a condition in which a person in stress resorts
to a destructive habitual physiological response, such as
muscle tension, vaso-constriction or dilation, or breath
suppression. A timely reminder to breathe can be immensely
empowering to the person’s body. The vaso-constriction or
dilation in the hands or feet, stomach, neck or forehead, or
any particular body part, causes them to be too cold or too
hot, respectively. Hence, the application of the reverse effect
(heat or cold) brings the constriction to the body’s attention
(not to conscious awareness) and allows a relaxing of the
hyperarousal. Encouragement to yell or scream when the
individual is imploding with suppressed fear is permission
and an instruction to the body to change a very old and
deeply embedded habit. One of the most effective means of
relaxing muscle tension is laughter. The therapist can insert
humor to accomplish this, as long as it is properly timed and
not used to dissipate emotion and thus avoid cathartic
release.
5. Work toward cathartic release, or other physical forms of
release such as “unwinding” the paralyzed energy in limbs or
head. Levine discusses the concept of “exchanging …an
active response for one of helplessness”.258 Here we are
coaxing the person to use will power, and the support of the
therapist or group members, to initiate a sympathetic
response (fight/flight) to replace the deeply embedded
parasympathetic response (freeze). For the person to
experience the active defense sequence (pushing with legs or
arms, moving out of paralysis into proactive movement,
yelling “No!”) brings her out of dissociation, into her body,
and begins a kinesthetic reframing process. The client may
begin to experience the somatic pleasure of physical
resistance and defense, and the emotional delight of a new
experience of personal power. The sequence, produced
through will power and trust, becomes a template for the
same new response to occur spontaneously in the future.
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
53
6. Experience having personal needs acknowledged and
responded to by a caring and safe support person. The
therapist may offer a drink of water (which also flushes
toxins from the system), offer heat or cold if it would be
soothing, offer additional means of protection (such as
something to cover the vulnerable umbilicus, the hand to
hold of a supportive group member, or bringing into an age
regressed scene a virtual resource person from the client’s
life at that time to ameliorate the terror), or establish direct
contact nurturing (touch, open eye contact).
7. Discover and develop personal resources, real or
imagined, that would be available so that the client is not
facing the threat alone, isolated, in secret, or unsupported.
The resources help to initiate a social engagement response
and to discharge excess fight/flight or freeze messages. The
resources should be experienced not just as an imagined
creative visualization, but with awareness to the sensations
experienced in their bodies.
8. Speak the experience of victimization in order to integrate
the memory functions and lessen the immobilizing
emotional/sensory reflex. The client is literally reconnecting
the experience (implicit or body memory) with the cognitive
context for it (explicit memory), and in the process is
repairing the physical damage done to her hippocampus.
Verbalizing reflectively in the age-regressed traumatized ego
state, in the presence of the caring therapist, begins to repair
the damage through regeneration within the hippocampus.
9. Reconnect memories and emotions to events. Bucci259
states the case succinctly: “One may be aware of the
physiological activation, the painful physical arousal,
associated with the activated schema of anger or fear, and
also aware of aspects of one’s history, including the trauma
and abuse, but without connecting the two. We see patients
telling the stories of their history without emotion, feeling
the physiological activation without recognizing its
emotional connections.” This is dissociation. The
physiological or cognitive activation is not connected in
memory to the source of the trauma because they were not
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connected at the highly stressful time of originally laying
down the memory.260
10. Reframe basic assumptions about the self as secure and
intrinsically worthy, and about the world as orderly and just.
The person’s most deeply embedded beliefs are accessible
for review and reframing, because in the age regression
process you have arrived at the very scene of their inception.
These personal conclusions and beliefs about the self and the
world are held by the immature, developmentally arrested
inner child and carried by the physical body (Reich’s
character armor).
11. Release the anger and blame directed against the self for
the inability to defend against the abuse. A common
response among trauma survivors is to interpret her
dissociation and freezing as a personal weakness.261 This is a
golden opportunity for re-establishing a loving, accepting
relationship with the inner child, who until now the client
has likely reviled and rejected. One of the most important
truths that child ego state needs to hear and accept from the
adult ego state is a reattribution of responsibility.262 263 “It
was not your fault. There was nothing you could do to stop it
from happening. The responsibility and blame belong to the
perpetrator.”
12. Locate the traumatic experiences in time and place, to
start making distinctions between current life stresses and
past trauma. During traumatic threat, it has been shown, the
hippocampus becomes suppressed. Its usual function of
placing a memory into the past is not active. The traumatic
event is prevented from becoming a memory in the past,
causing it to seem to float in time, often invading the
present.264 265 We must recognize, too, that traumatic
memories are stored as emotions and senses (implicit
memory), and are therefore often hazy, impressionistic, or
kinesthetic. Understandably, survivors become haunted by
feelings and senses they suspect are related to the trauma,
but cannot clearly identify as explicit memories.
Sometimes it takes a lot of patience to eventually get to
clear memories of what happened at the time of the trauma.
It is common in therapy with trauma victims to observe their
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
55
healing process begin with awareness of “body memories”
and other procedural-implicit memories, and then gradually
expand to include specific episodic memories of where,
when, and how the trauma occurred.266
13. Learn to trust and surrender to a healthy interpersonal
relationship with the therapist, who demonstrates an ability
to understand the client’s distress and tolerates the
description and re-experience of her traumatic experience
without as therapist withdrawing or becoming hyperaroused
or hypoaroused. The therapist must overcome the client’s
mistrust and suspicion the old fashioned way: he/she must
earn it.
14. Recognize that current life stresses tend to be
experienced as somatic states, and accept physical
symptoms as ally rather than enemy. Physical symptoms are
the body’s way of communicating an unmet need to the
person; they are not a statement of defiance, mutiny,
hostility, or weakness. Developing an awareness of inner
body sensations and a precise sensation vocabulary are
helpful steps toward restoring a sense of the body and its
sensations as friend, not foe.
15. Develop new outlets for discharging stress and for creating
a sense of well-being. The individual may have relied on reenactment of stress and trauma, through endorphin release
and dissociation, to achieve relief, numbing of the pain, and
what has passed as a sense of well-being. In other words the
pattern is to seek re-exposure to stress for the same effect as
taking pain-killing opiates, providing a similar relief from
stress. Expression rather than repression of feelings may be a
new option for the person. It is important to engage in the
process of learning to discharge excess stress response in a
healthy way. And that requires a clear understanding of
one’s own response patterns.
An individual who is aware of a tendency toward
hyperarousal (fight/flight) response will discover that it is, in
fact, the body’s attempt to discharge excess parasympathetic
load. The quick temper or incessant talking (dissociated
sympathetic response) is preceded by, if only momentarily, a
fear of rejection or sense of shame (parasympathetic
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response). Likewise, if a person tends toward hypoarousal
(freeze) stress response, he/she will discover that it may be,
in fact, the body’s attempt to discharge excess sympathetic
load. The sense of exhaustion or constant snacking
(dissociated parasympathetic response) is preceded by, if
only momentarily, a flash of rage or frustrated need
(sympathetic response). With this knowledge, the therapist
can encourage the client to look directly at the momentary
initial response that needs discharging rather than at the
dissociated defensive response, and to develop new outlets to
accomplish that discharge.
16. Increase self-regulation and thereby prevent the
escalation of arousal to the point of discharge through
aggression or other undesirable behavior. Hyperactive
defenses can take the form of uncontrollable rage or frenzy
(directed at self or others), and learning to sense the physical
precursors to full-blown aggressive outbursts will extinguish
the conditioned response, and therefore increase the person’s
feeling of safety. When we help the client achieve biological
completion, i.e., discharge following activation, and unlock
the constriction of the nervous system, he/she can then
integrate the experience for future use with triggering events,
replacing the dysfunctional autonomic pattern of response.
The capacity to bring the automatic reaction into a state
from which choice is possible, to internalize new cognitive
information, depends on having portions of the cortex
activated, which, in turn, requires a state of mindfulness.
Some effective techniques to increase this state are
increasing conscious awareness to current emotions; having
the vocabulary and the self-sensitivity to identify and label
emotions; creating, acknowledging and anchoring positive
emotional events; and using support and other resources to
improve tolerance for stressful situations.
17. Increase the sense of personal safety through increasing
the sense of internal locus of control and greater reliability of
external forces.
Clients find that they can gradually slow down and maintain
an integrated awareness from start to finish throughout the
experience of re-living a traumatic incident, including the most
Hartman & Zimberoff: Bringing Unconscious Choices to Awareness
57
invasive aspects. Then perceptually, the incident can move from
seeming to be ever-present, or fixated in the future, back into the
past where it belongs. Symptoms diminish. Triggers of fear,
panic and anger are extinguished as continuity of self is reestablished and it is experienced as truly over.
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Journal of Heart-Centered Therapies, 2011, Vol. 14, No. 2
David Hartman